Orchid Care Blog

The beginner must watch his plants carefully, ...

The beginner must watch his plants carefully, combining all his knowledge of orchids with solicitous observation and a strong admixture of green thumb.

Experimenting with orchids is extremely precarious because their life cycle is so long, five to seven years from seed to bloom, and the cause of damage may have been forgotten in the six or eight months before it is evident.

The grower should vary heat conditions to balance other conditions of the house and plants.

As in most native habitats, the temperature can be some degrees lower in winter than in summer.

This is another point on which there is difference of opinion.

Some growers increase the heat a bit during the winter day, reducing it again at night to sustain balance.

As was pointed out in Chapter 3, the ideal set-up for growing the widely differing genera would be the three-house system.

One house would be for orchids tolerating 45 to 48 degrees F. minimum night temperature in the winter-Cymbidiums, some Laelias and Cypripediums,

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Odontoglossums, aristocrats of South America, are normally...

Odontoglossums, aristocrats of South America, are normally found at heights of from 5,000 to 12,000 feet.

They require cool, shaded conditions at all times and for this reason they are a little difficult to raise with other species.

Mil-tonias are found at heights up to 8000 feet in Brazil, Costa Rica, and Colombia.

They require shaded sunlight.

Deciduous Dendro-biums, native to India and the Philippines, must be protected from the sun during the growing season.

Cypripediums, usually called lady's slippers, are found in many lands and in a great variety of climates.

Consequently they like differing amounts of sun, but all must be protected from burning.

Generally the mottled-leaved types require more shade and more heat.

The problem of the amount of heat is closely allied to the matter of light.

Most climates in the temperate zone require artificial heat in the orchid house to supplement that provided by the sun.

Automatic controls simplify the matter, but they do not take the place of brainwork.

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Sudden temperature changes should be avoided.

Among the...

Sudden temperature changes should be avoided.

Among the sun-worshipers are the Vandas, natives of India, the Philippines, and some Pacific islands.

They will not thrive without adequate sun, and they must have corresponding amounts of heat and water.

Care must be exercised to keep water from remaining in the growing crown.

The evergreen Dendrobiums, native to the Indian Islands, and Oncidiums, from Central and South America, are also sun-worshipers.

Phalaenopsis, the lovely white 'bride's orchids' from the Philippines and the Eastern Archipelago, respond well to sun, but must not be overexposed.

A warm, moist atmosphere, with plenty of air, is best for this species.

Zygopetalums, found in Brazil, Venezuela, and the Guianas, require moderate exposure to sun.

As a rule orchids from mountainous regions or from the temperate zone need protection from direct sun.

Cymbidiums, natives of the Himalayas, require controlled sun and cool conditions with abundant air.

These spray orchids, with their Joseph's-coat range of colors from pink, yellow, green, and brown to the rare pure white, are difficult to grow under glass because they like their 'heads hot and feet cold'; but with careful observation a proper balance can be worked out.

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There is the further difficulty of each ...

There is the further difficulty of each species' having its own light requirements.

Quick reference to conditions in the native homes of the species that the amateur is likely to acquire will illustrate the point.

Cattleyas, native to Central and South America, are found hanging on trees in the tropical rain forests.

The burning sun of midday is usually kept off the plant by foliage directly overhead.

The grower, guided by this knowledge, lets Cattleyas be exposed to the sun, but provides shade in summer during the warmest part of the day, for sunburn must be avoided.

The increased exposure to sun necessitates a corresponding increase in humidity to prevent the pseudobulbs from shriveling.

Laelias, showy natives of Mexico and Central America, are found growing on rocks in the open sun.

They are closely related to Cattleyas, but require larger amounts of both light and air.

The grower should find a place for them in the sun, right up under the glass.

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Once the amateur has made the choice ...

Once the amateur has made the choice between 'soft' and 'hard' methods, the subsequent treatment must be consistent.

If much sun is provided, more moisture and air will be required.

If the plants are grown with minimum sun they will require less moisture, but an increase in ventilation may be needed to keep the air sweet.

Too great an increase in heat during the winter is a common error of orchid growers.

Plants store up energy during the daylight hours and give off or transpire energy at night.

Increase in night heat increases transpiration.

Shorter periods of daylight lessen the manufacture of energy.

If the plant loses more energy at night than it is able to store during the day, obviously it will suffer.

Orchids are very susceptible to shock of any kind, and they take considerable time to recover-if they ever do. This danger must be borne in mind regarding sunburn, chilling, or energy deficit.

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This method, while marring the appearance of ...

This method, while marring the appearance of the plant, is said by its proponents to give increased bloom.

Too much light must be avoided, since it will burn the plant and growth will be interrupted.

Dry, yellow flower sheaths will at times result from such sunburn, and incipient buds will become steamy and subject to destruction by wet rot.

Cutting off the very top of such a sheath with a sharp knife will allow air to reach the bud and may save it. The claim that growing orchids 'hard' increases flower growth appears logical if the conditions under which orchids grow in their natural state are considered: the natural environment is 'hard.

' It must be remembered, however, that nature controls sunlight in a way difficult to approximate in the greenhouse.

Even in those areas where certain varieties grow in so-called 'full sun/ it will be found that drifting clouds give a protection that is absent under intensely directed light in the greenhouse.

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One of the things that make the ...

One of the things that make the growing of orchids unique and stimulating is the spirited controversy that arises over every aspect of culture.

One of the many points on which there is no incontroversial procedure is the matter of how much light should be admitted.

It must be decided whether to grow the plants 'soft' or 'hard,' to use the parlance of experienced growers.

The amateur must make his own choice.

To grow 'soft' means to shade the plants from the sun so that the leaves remain a beautiful dark green.

There can be no doubt that this method produces the most beautiful plants, but the quality of bloom is a question that cannot be answered so definitely.

In 'soft' conditions care must be exercised not to shade to the point where flower growth will be hindered.

To grow 'hard' means to allow so much light that the leaves have decided overtones of yellow.

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Using the energy provided by light, the ...

Using the energy provided by light, the green leaf chlorophyll transforms the carbon dioxide from the air and the mineral salts from moisture into sugar and other carbohydrates.

These energy carbohydrates are stored until needed either for rebuilding plant tissue or for flowering.

The pseudobulbs of some types, the large leathery leaves of others, and the slender grass-like leaves of orchids lacking pseudobulbs are the storage reservoirs.

The cycle will continue only if the grower devotes the utmost attention to the special requirements of the orchid.

The reward for his devotion comes when the brilliant bloom and beauty of the tropics is reproduced in the greenhouse.

No hard and fast rules can be set down for the beginner to follow.

It has been said that each grower in his own greenhouse, within limitations established by the plants, is a law unto himself.

The amount of each element in the light-heat-moisture-air formula will vary according to season, experience, and variety.

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The first would be for the cool-growing ...

The first would be for the cool-growing orchids like Cymbidiums, some Cypripediums, and Odontoglossums, and would be kept at a minimum winter temperature of 48 degrees F. at night.

The second, which might be called the intermediate house, would be kept at 60 to 65 degrees, a temperature suitable for Cattleya and allied genera.

The third, or hothouse proper, would have a minimum night winter temperature of from 68ø to 700, making it suitable for Phalaenopsis, Vandas, Dendrobiums, and the mottled-leaf slippers like Cypripedium Maudiae.

Most amateurs, however, lack space and resources for three houses, and with ingenuity one house can be departmentalized.

A section away from the source of heat and infrequently pene trated by the sun should be selected for the orchids preferring coolness.

One bench might be left without piping for this purpose.

Warmer-growing plants can be placed in the warmest part of the greenhouse.

Plants requiring direct sun, like Laelias and Cattleya gigas, can be placed right up against the glass.

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For the larger house in a mild ...

For the larger house in a mild climate it may be operated by a boiler or Arcola type of heater.

Where temperatures drop below zero the pipe should be four inches, and heat should be supplied by an oil or coal boiler.

The gravity system is probably not practical for the larger house.

In such circumstances a circulating pump can be used to force the water through the pipe.

The pump must be kept in good condition, for, if it should freeze, water will not circulate and the boiler may explode.

The chimney should be taller than the roof and designed to keep injurious fumes from the house.

Many amateurs use the shed housing their heater as a potting shed.

It is conveniently placed for this purpose and will be warm in winter.

These plans are not for the 'ideal' greenhouse, if there is any such thing.

The ideal, of course, would be three greenhouses.

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From B the water falls to the ...

From B the water falls to the pipe (D-D), which is level with the ground, causing equal amounts of water to flow to both points.

Water then flows from D down both sides of the house and back to F under the same drop as it did from A to B. From F there is another drop back to the heater and the process is repeated.

A water outlet (8), outside the shut-off valve, is provided for watering the house.

The 'closed' system is similar to the 'open' system outlined above, but has a reduction valve from the city system and should have a 'bleeder' so that the maximum water pressure in the pipe does not exceed 28 pounds pressure per square inch.

The disadvantage of this layout is that heat may be lost by backing up into the city system.

The side-arm heater system with two-inch pipe is only suited for a small house in a mild climate.

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The best pipe for this or any ...

The best pipe for this or any system is the one and a half or two-inch hot-dipped galvanized, rust-resistant type.

Black pipe is a good conductor of heat but is more susceptible to rust from the constant damp.

In the sketch (Plate vn) the gas enters through a valve (1) and goes to the solenoid valve (2) (controlled by the thermostat [11]).

From there it goes to the copper coil side-arm heater (coils should be at least % inch), which is controlled by a pilot light.

Water enters the heater through the shut-off valve (7), which is closed after the pipes are filled.

A valve (6) is used to drain the system.

The water passes through the coils and rises as it is heated to the highest point (A).

As the water heats, it expands, forcing some up into the expansion tank (9), which is open to the air at 10. Gravity carries the water to B, a drop of one-half in three inches being allowed.

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A type of gas floor furnace, well ...

A type of gas floor furnace, well vented and with the flame not directly open to the house, has been found satisfactory for the small greenhouse.

Humidity must be maintained to offset dryness.

Open gas heaters are a menace in the greenhouse, for if the flame is accidentally put out the fumes will quickly kill the plants.

Electric heaters are too drying and too concentrated for plants near by and do not provide enough warmth for plants some distance away.

More elaborate systems are required for a completely satisfactory solution of the heating problem.

For areas where the temperature does not fall below zero, hot-water systems operated by thermostatically controlled gas are very satisfactory.

Where severe winters prevail, hot-water or steam systems with coal or oil burners will be required.

There are many types from which to choose, but only one can be examined here in any detail.

The simple gravity system has been found very efficient for small greenhouses (nine by twelve feet to twelve by fifteen feet).

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Heating is perhaps the most vexing problem ...

Heating is perhaps the most vexing problem concerning orchid housing.

Fear of heating failure, which may leave orchids exposed to the disastrous cold of freezing weather, causes the sleepless nights of many an orchidist.

One amateur has gone so far as to have an alarm bell rigged up in his bedroom to warn of any heating failure.

Most of the worry can be avoided if enough thought goes into a heating plan well in advance of construction.

Visits to the houses of other growers, discussions with them of the merits of different systems, conferences with a local plumber or heating expert, and investigation of available material will be worth all the time and effort so spent.

The simplest heating systems can be considered only expedients-some of them dangerous ones.

The fumes of a kerosene stove are disagreeable to humans but a few orchids in a tiny house.

In case of emergency, and many an amateur has set the alarm for the middle of the night to refill the stove against the cold.

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Scale and fungi have a diabolical tendency ...

Scale and fungi have a diabolical tendency to attack the part of a plant against the wall and out of reach-hence the warning that benches should be 'reach' width.

Floors should preferably be raised a few inches above the surrounding ground to provide drainage.

One or two inches of gravel over earth (round or pea gravel is most satisfactory) makes the best type of floor, since it dries out quickly on the surface while retaining moisture underneath.

Such a floor helps maintain proper humidity when it is wet down on hot days.

Walks may be of brick or rough concrete.

Durable wood walks are more comfortable to stand on and, if constructed of slats, will dry out rapidly enough.

They do, however, provide hiding places for slugs and other pests, including rats.

Aisles between benches should be wide enough so that one may walk comfortably without fear of breaking off new shoots, damaging flowers, or knocking down pots.

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Proper circulation of air is essential for ...

Proper circulation of air is essential for the health of the plants.

Under natural conditions drying winds keep the epiphytic roots sweet at all times.

'In captivity' the orchid roots are confined in pots and baskets, and the air of the greenhouse can easily become 'dead' and stuffy.

Air-conditioning would seem the ideal solution, but the grower must be mechanically inclined and ingenious enough to invent a system of his own, for the few available ready made systems are prohibitively expensive.

Fortunately a well-planned ventilation system can bring the desired result except in extremely dry climates, and even in such localities a proper balance between heat and moisture can bring a workable solution.

Vents placed along the roof ridge will provide sufficient air circulation.

The openings should face away from prevailing winds, since a gentle movement rather than a draft is required.

The openings may be operated by pushrods or the more elaborate worm-and-gear mechanism.

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A much more satisfactory shading is secured ...

A much more satisfactory shading is secured by means of lath slats supported eight to twelve inches above the roof surface.

Most orchid plants thrive best in the kind of shading provided by laths, where moving bands of sunlight alternate with bands of shadow.

Anyone who has seen orchids growing in the tropics will remember that effect of the sun.

The slat shading also efficiently moderates greenhouse temperature on blazing summer days.

An adjustable type of slat shading has been developed that varies the amount of shade to suit the season and can be removed easily for clear glass conditions in the winter (see page 39).

Some growers take an extra precaution against burning by tacking cheesecloth or sheer muslin about three inches below the ceiling inside.

There is some disadvantage in this procedure, however, since the damp cloth furnishes an almost ideal place for the growth of fungus.

The important matter of aeration is next to be considered.

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The plants demand sun, but only experience ...

The plants demand sun, but only experience will enable the grower to steer the fine course between enough sun and the excessive amount that will burn.

Generally speaking, the greenhouse glass may be kept clear for only a few weeks in mid-winter.

At all other times it is necessary to provide shade of one sort or another, both to avoid excessive temperature and to prevent burning.

An attempt should be made to approximate the degree of shade found in the natural habitat of the plants, where sunlight is filtered through layers of jungle growth.

The cheapest and easiest method of shading is to paint the glass on the exterior with some mixture that admits considerable light and that may be easily removed in the late fall to admit clear sun in winter.

Either a mixture of white lead and gasoline or a white casein paint that will wash off is satisfactory for this purpose.

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There is only one variation from standard ...

There is only one variation from standard practice in exterior painting: it is well to run the paint over the surfaces of putty and about one-eighth of an inch on to the glass in order to prolong the life of the putty.

It might be well to varnish the putty and let it dry before painting.

Paint to be used inside the greenhouse should be selected with caution.

It should be known to be non-toxic to the plants.

The constant damp makes anything soluble.

Plants are so sensitive and the possible damage so insidious that the amateur is warned not to use any doubtful paint.

Deleterious effects on orchids may not show up for six months to a year.

In the discussion of the plan so far, provision has been made for maximum sun.

There is still the problem of controlling the intensity of the sun, which is again a matter on which intense debate rages among orchidists.

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In glazing the roof, beds of putty ...

In glazing the roof, beds of putty should first be placed on the glass rabbets of previously primed wood roof bars, and the glass pressed into the putty so that the entire space between the glass and the bars is filled with putty.

After each pane has been set in place it should be secured to the bars by means of zinc glazing nails: one nail at the bottom to prevent the glass from slipping down, and two more nails driven into the bars at either side to hold the glass firmly to the putty.

After the glass has been secured, excess putty can be cut away flush with the glass inside and outside.

It is poor practice to 'face putty' or place fillets of putty along the outside joints, as is usually done in glazing a window sash in a building.

Any first-quality outside paint may be used for painting the greenhouse.

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Galvanized steel pipe or structural steel is ...

Galvanized steel pipe or structural steel is preferred for this purpose.

Where the initial cost is the main consideration, wood may be used, but it has a poor appearance and is likely to sag.

Roofing glass should be new and of good grade, since poor glass may interfere with the quality of the light.

Single-strength glass is suitable for use on the Pacific Coast or other localities where there are no snow loads or high winds to be guarded against.

Double-strength glass should be used in more severe climates.

Glass can be used in sizes from sixteen by eighteen inches to eighteen by twenty-four inches.

It should be installed by being laid with lapped joints similar to those of a shingle roof, except that the laps between should be only one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch.

Wider laps are not advisable because the capillary action in the space between the lapped surfaces will cause leakage.

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Cement, while not so popular, is almost ...

Cement, while not so popular, is almost as satisfactory and not so expensive.

The continuous moisture conditions the choice of material for the frame and equipment.

The wrong wood will rot and unprotected metal will rust.

Pine and other soft woods are definitely not usable, as many a misguided amateur, with his house disintegrating about him after a few short years, has found.

The constant damping necessary for the health of the plants causes rapid rot in the softer woods.

On the Pacific Coast the availability of redwood, with its resistance to damp and abuse, makes it the wood of choice.

In the East and Midwest, Red Gulf cypress is favored for the same reasons.

All metal used should be hot-dipped galvanized steel or brass in order to minimize corrosion.

While the nine-foot wide, two-bench greenhouse does not ordinarily require additional framework to support the roof, houses wider than this must be more substantial to carry the additional weight, prevent sagging of roof bars, and resist wind.

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It is often advisable to use a ...

It is often advisable to use a standard construction with one end attached to the building and with the ridge at right angles to the building, as this minimizes the difficulty of flashing at the building connections.

It should be borne in mind that the six-inch to one-foot roof pitch must also be provided for this type of greenhouse.

The best of construction plans may be frustrated by selection of unsuitable materials.

Orchidists of Europe and the British Empire have shown wisdom through their long orchid-raising experience by selecting only the most durable materials for greenhouse construction.

Materials must be durable and suitable in relation to the specific conditions necessary for orchid growing-again the balance of heat, humidity, and ventilation.

From the days when the name 'stove' was first applied to the hothouse, brick has been favored for sidewalls, not only because of its durability but equally because it holds the moisture and stays cool in summer and warm in winter.

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There are many types of design, but ...

There are many types of design, but the most economical and satisfactory is the so-called 'even span' type where the roof slopes uniformly down from both sides of a ridge to the eaves.

This slope should never be less than six inches vertical to one foot horizontal; a lesser slope will invariably cause leakage during rainy weather, and, instead of running down the glass, condensed moisture will drop from the glass on to the plants below.

If condensation grooves are milled in the sides of the bar supporting the roof glass, moisture condensing on the glass will be drawn off and destructive dripping prevented.

A lean-to construction, with the greenhouse attached to the building along the high point of the glass roof, is sometimes necessary.

In this case there are certain difficulties to be overcome.

It is difficult to make strictly weather-tight joints between a lean-to and the building that forms one wall.

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The greenhouse may be raised on piers ...

The greenhouse may be raised on piers to compensate for a hillside or it may be built in tiers with steps between.

The foundation proper, however, must be level and firm.

A good, level concrete foundation pays dividends in insuring firmness.

Settling causes cracks in the glass; cracks cause dripping; and drippings make for spotted flowers-the grower's tragedy.

Additional firmness can be gained by sinking eight- to ten-inch bolts into the wet concrete of the foundation, and then bolting the mudsill into place.

The next choice facing the amateur is between the home-built house and the many available sectional, ready-built greenhouses.

Prefabricated houses, while possibly more expensive, are easily erected and may save money by eliminating the mistakes prevalent in the trial-and-error method of design.

There is the additional advantage that prefabricated houses are movable, being bolted rather than nailed together.

Greenhouse manufacturers supply detailed plans and all materials for houses to be erected by the grower or a carpenter.

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For this reason a location should be ...

For this reason a location should be chosen where plenty of sun is available.

The amount can then be regulated by artificial means.

There has been much controversy over the relative merits of north-south versus east-west facing.

There is no principle involved here-the facing that gives the most sun is the best; but again the contour of the ground is a determining factor.

The problem of facing is not of great importance with a small house, since it is so nearly square, but the sun's path over a larger house should be considered.

Trees shading the location should be kept well trimmed to let enough light through.

Deciduous trees make excellent shade, for they are more or less bare in seasons when the sun is weak while their full summer foliage coincides with the period when the sun's rays are strongest.

It is not necessary for the lot to be level.

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The benches may be thirty to thirty-six ...

The benches may be thirty to thirty-six inches high-the exact height governed by the comfortable reach of the grower.

A thirty-six-inch bench on each side of a three-foot walk requires that the house be at least nine feet wide; a five-foot middle bench can be added if the house is sixteen feet wide.

After size, the next consideration in the plan is location, which will probably be dictated by elevation and the contour of the ground.

The house should be so located as to provide the most sunshine.

Shade can be attained by any number of means, but the right light comes only from the sun, for which there is no substitute.

Contrary to popular belief the orchid is a sun-loving plant.

It may exist, and even grow, without sun, but without an adequate amount of sunlight it will not bloom.

The needs of the different genera extend from well-diffused light to full sunlight.

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The overcrowding of plants must be considered ...

The overcrowding of plants must be considered seriously, for overcrowding brings trouble in the form of pests, disease, and spotted flowers owing to poor air.

The need of orchids for free circulation of air cannot be over-emphasized.

In the last analysis, the size of an orchid house will be determined by the very practical considerations of available space, the amount of money the grower can spend, and the number of plants to be housed-either now or in the future.

Advantages of a small house are ease and economy of construction and mainte nance.

A somewhat larger house allows superior heating and ventilation control, with better air and less crowding.

Sample measurements for an amateur house might be fifteen by thirty feet with a ridge nine to ten feet high, the roof with a pitch of about twenty-six and a half degrees, aisles not less than two and a half feet wide.

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Before he is aware of what is ...

Before he is aware of what is happening the single plant has grown to a collection that is not small.

Almost overnight his orchid-housing needs have become unexpectedly complex.

If this contingency is not foreseen the house will be outgrown before it has been completed.

It is difficult, as in all branches of orchid culture, to set down any hard-and-fast rules about the size of the greenhouse.

This must be determined strictly by individual needs.

Ideally one square foot of bench space per plant is desirable.

Orchid plants vary greatly in size; they grow in containers ranging from thumb pots to large tubs, so that their space requirements differ.

In general the plants in an amateur's collection will require from one-third to one square foot of bench space, with additional space allowed for future acquisitions.

It might be safe to say that a nine by twelve house can be made to hold about 150 plants without too much crowding.

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Before making a final decision in regard ...

Before making a final decision in regard to the type and size of house, the amateur will be well advised to pause and consider his needs and his ability to meet them.

He should look ahead as far as possible, to build for tomorrow as well as today.

Many an amateur has rushed headlong into building only to find that many costly mistakes might have been avoided if he had put a little thought and study into planning.

One thing, aside from burning enthusiasm for his hobby, sets the orchidist apart as different and perhaps a trifle eccentric-his terrific acquisitiveness.

Today he has one plant, the next day someone offers him a backbulb from 'my very best plant.

' He repots and divides what he has, indulges in a community pot of fine seedlings, trades here, buys there, and finally takes a chance on importing a hundred or more species plants.

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Additional moisture is sometimes secured by laying...

Additional moisture is sometimes secured by laying lamp wicks on props with one end in the pan of water on the floor.

An all-glass floor-type showcase may be readily converted into a Wardian case.

More elaborate cases, specifically designed for orchid culture, are produced by several manufacturing firms.

For the amateur who wishes to grow only ten or twelve blooming-size plants or who requires an incubator for orchid-seed culture and for growing seedlings in community pots a properly constructed Wardian case gives excellent service.

Now, although the owner of a Wardian case at first proclaims his satisfaction, it is the very nature of an orchid grower that sooner or later he should begin to yearn for a greenhouse.

The greenhouse is essentially a glass-covered structure (into which the grower may easily walk standing erect), equipped with the means to control ventilation, temperature, humidity, and sunlight.

The range of choice extends from the lean-to (using the wall of a dwelling as a common wall) and the simple amateur greenhouse to the conservatory with a lofty arched roof and the neat rows of trim commercial houses called ranges.

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It can be done.

Success depends on the ...

It can be done.

Success depends on the ingenuity of the grower in improvising means for balance.

Some amateurs have attained a measure of success by adapting a heated glass-enclosed porch.

Others have grown plants in the home over open pans of water resting on shelves in front of large windows.

But it must be emphasized that only the most vigorous types of orchids will thrive or even live under such conditions.

The Wardian case is a solution of the orchid housing problem for apartment-house dwellers and people living in congested areas.

It may be a glass case, frequently piano-box shape, about twenty-four inches by twenty-eight inches and from twenty-four inches to thirty-six inches high, provided with a thermostatically controlled heating system (an electric-light bulb, an electric coil under the gravel of the tray, or even a brooder element will serve), with a water-tight pan covering the bottom to hold water or moist gravel to humidify the air, and with a means of controlling the ventilation (a hinged front may be used for such aeration).

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The task is to provide conditions paralleling ...

The task is to provide conditions paralleling those of the plant's native habitat, and to substitute others when the natural environment cannot be approximated.

The success of this procedure is demonstrated by the fact that many species grown in the glasshouse are far larger and more beautiful than jungle-grown specimens.

Natural conditions of temperature, atmospheric humidity, sunlight, and free circulation of air must be reproduced for each species of orchid plant under cultivation if maximum production and quality of blooms are to be attained.

This requires some sort of enclosure where each component of the balance can be properly controlled.

There is perhaps no perfect answer to the problem of housing.

Each grower, guided by the experience of others, must find a solution according to his needs, desires, and resources.

Occasionally someone will describe, with contagious enthusiasm, how he has grown orchids on the window sill of a kitchen or sun porch, and has even brought them to full bloom.

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Hawaii boasts few or no indigenous orchids ...

Hawaii boasts few or no indigenous orchids (opinions differ on the matter), but the climate makes it possible to hang imported orchids in trees, with happy results.

Australia has many native orchids and many localities accommodate imported orchids in bush-houses, the equivalent of American lath-houses.

On the island of Ceylon and in some other tropical countries a large foliaceous tree in the garden makes a splendid home for many types of orchid.

Central and South America are the habitat of many of the finest members of the orchid family, and gardens abound in them.

Even there, however, scale and other pests must be kept under firm control.

Regions with a climate similar to Southern California are ideally suited for growing, under lath, genera such as Cymbidium.

The climate of the major portions of North America, England, and the Continent, however, make some sort of heated glasshouse necessary.

The balance needed by the orchid, although peculiar and exacting, can be provided if the requirements are understood and provided for by the grower.

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For successful growth the orchid, like plants ...

For successful growth the orchid, like plants of the garden variety, requires a proper balance of light, heat, water, and food.

The proportion and quality of these elements are, however, radically different for the orchid.

Most epiphytic orchids come from tropical or subtropical regions where there is abundant atmospheric moisture and where the intense sunlight is modified by dense foliage.

Showy tropical orchids, dwellers in rain-swept jungles, cling to trees and send out long roots, seeking nourishment from moisture-soluble minerals in the air and from humus in the forks of tree trunks.

Other orchids grow on bare rocks, where they are subjected to drenching rains and drying winds.

The sun in the regions where such orchids grow is tempered by the constantly drifting clouds that bring the sudden showers.

In transplanting orchids from their diverse habitats to civilization the grower is faced with a major problem-suitable housing.

There are some fortunate regions where housing presents little or no difficulty.

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Some of the species have $howy flowers, ...

Some of the species have $howy flowers, but they are difficult to grow.

It may be accommodated in a hot house.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 123.

) It may surprise and interest the amateur to know that Vanilla is a genus of the orchid family.

It is exceedingly difficult to grow, however, owing to its far-roving, vine-like habit of growth, and it infrequently flowers in the temperate zone.

It is monopodial, epiphytic, and evergreen.

It lacks pseudobulbs, but has heavy, fleshy leaves.

The flowers are fairly large, but the plant must assume considerable size before it will flower.

The seed pods are the source of vanilla.

An intermediate or hot house will serve.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 123.

) FROM the time of acquiring his first plant the beginner in orchid culture must learn much that is new and, perhaps equally important and difficult, unlearn much that applies to growing other plants.

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Masdevallia is a large genus which is ...

Masdevallia is a large genus which is remarkable principally for the weird and fantastic shape taken by its flowers.

It is native to tropical America.

It is sympodial and both terrestrial and epiphytic.

Its creeping rhizome and shiny leaves take the place of pseudobulbs.

The flowers resemble unearthly insects, with long, tapering, curled sepals and a tubular or contorted lip, which is most frequently white.

An intermediate house will serve.

Chysis is a small genus containing only about eight species.

It is epiphytic, evergreen, and pseudobulbous.

It has showering flowers, which have a divided lip with a spreading skirt-like base, and erect side lobes, lightly curving together, with a hooded effect.

(Listing and descriptions of some of the species of this genus may be found on page 123.

) Renanthera, a native of India and the South Pacific islands, is a genus of epiphytic and distichous growth and a difficult roving habit.

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It enjoys the hot house with Vandas ...

It enjoys the hot house with Vandas and Phalaenopsis.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 122.

) Catasetum is a genus that is of special interest not because of its beauty, but because of the weird shape of its flowers and the amazing contrivances used in pollination.

It is seldom seen in collections.

It is definitely epiphytic, producing aerial roots in profusion; it is sympodial and native to Central America.

When the plant was originally found, it was thought that the male flower-producing plant and the female were two separate species.

Green, yellow, and brown predominate in the color scheme of the flowers.

An intermediate house serves.

Trichopelia is another genus, of largely botanical interest.

The plants are dwarf and evergreen.

They have fleshy pseudobulbs and leaves and showy, curiously shaped flowers, usually bearing tubular-shaped lips.

An intermediate or hot house will serve.

/Listing and descriptions of species may be found on page 122.

)

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It is a monopodial epiphyte with many ...

It is a monopodial epiphyte with many close-growing, rounded, slightly flattened pseudobulbs, and it blooms prolifically, with tiny flowers.

The leaves are usually grass-like.

An intermediate house serves.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 122.

) Cycnoches is a lovely genus that has been neglected by American growers.

The plants have heavy, woody pseudobulbs.

The graceful foliage is frequently shed in the winter.

In fact, flowering is such a strain on the plant that the old bulb often gives all its strength to the new growth, and then shrivels and dies.

An injudicious use of water is disastrous.

The plant produces large, handsome flowers whose shape has earned for it the graceful name 'swan's neck orchid.

' The flowers are so unusual and beautiful that they are worth any amount of labor involved in encouraging them to bloom.

According to Lindley, C. ventricosum produces male, female, and neuter flowers in the same scape.

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on racemes coming from the center of ...

on racemes coming from the center of the new growths, and usually having sepals broader than the smaller petals.

An intermediate or cool house will serve.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 121.

) The genus Lycaste is a sympodial epiphyte, attractive and easy to grow.

It has thick pseudobulbs and short, ribbed leaves, and in some species the flowers are extremely large for the size of the plant.

There is a wide color range, from deep pink to greenish-brown; the texture is exquisite and glistening; and the shape is oddly like a half-open rosebud.

It is strictly a native of the tropical Western Hemisphere.

It may be accommodated in a cool or intermediate house.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on pages 121-2.

) Maxillaria, of chiefly botanical interest, is a genus very similar to Lycaste; in fact, it was formerly confused with that genus.

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The coloring is odd with the frequent ...

The coloring is odd with the frequent combination of white and yellow, while the outside of the petals, sepals, and lip is white.

Phaius crosses readily with Calanthe.

An intermediate house serves.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 120.

) The genus Calanthe is terrestrial, infrequently epiphytic, sympodial, evergreen, and sometimes deciduous.

Having large, wide, gracefully drooping leaves of shimmering texture and artistic grooving, it is much used in England for table decoration.

The pseudobulbs are large, heavy, and of light olive-green, and the flowers grow in sprays and are delicately colored, though coarser in texture than most orchids.

An intermediate or cool house will serve.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on pages 120-21.

^ Coelogyne is a pseudobulbous, evergreen, sympodial epiphyte.

It varies considerably with the species, the bulbs of C. cristate being short, plump, and well-rounded, while those of C. Pan-durata are flattened, compressed, and distichous.

The flowers are oddly attractive and of crisp texture, growing freely

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The plants are difficult to maintain without ...

The plants are difficult to maintain without yellowing or spotting, and are very susceptible to thrips and red spiders, whose inroads still further mar their appearance.

They are epiphytic and sympodial.

The flowers are large for the size of the bulb and are borne in large numbers on a slender, erect stem.

Miltonia, because of its beauty and variety, offers desirable plants for an amateur collection.

The flowers do not last well when cut, but if left on the plant are long-lived.

If well tended the whole plant makes a graceful and attractive decoration or centerpiece.

It crosses with Cochlioda to form Miltonioda.

An intermediate house serves.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on pages 119-20.

) The genus Phaius, although not one of the treasured 'commercials,' is satisfactory and easy to grow.

The plant is terrestrial and epiphytic, handsomely ornamental, and usually pseudobulbous.

It has large fine leaves from the midst of which rise tall, erect stems bearing large, showy flowers.

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It also hybridizes freely with Oncidium to ...

It also hybridizes freely with Oncidium to form Odontocidium.

(Listing and descriptions of species may be found on pages 117-19.

) Stanhopea is an interesting genus.

It is epiphytic and sympodial, with large, showy, fragrant flowers, and has the habit of throwing the flower spike from the bottom of the plant, so that it requires potting in a basket.

The flowers, not prolific, have a peculiar waxy texture and are disappointingly short-lived.

If cut immediately and placed in water they will last a little longer.

The fleshy prominent lip and organs for reproduction display many surprising shapes in the different species.

The plants are pseudobulbous and have dark green leaves.

Either an intermediate or cooler house will serve.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 119.

) The genus Miltonia has very fragile-looking plants, the pseudo-bulbs so pale a green as to appear transparent and the delicate foliage closely adhering to the pseudobulbs at the base and feathering out at the top.

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Listing and descriptions of species may be ...

Listing and descriptions of species may be found on page 117.

) Members of the genus Odontoglossum have been found difficult to grow under artificial cultivation, as they require conditions entirely different from those of most greenhouse orchids.

Seldom found at an elevation of less than 5000 feet, they need shade, air, and moisture without being chilled.

They are so showy and lovely, in respect to both plant-pseudobulbous and foliaceous- and to crisply serrated flowers, that it is well worth the effort to study their native environment and supply conditions to make them happy.

The plants are small, compact, evergreen, sympodial, and epiphytic, and the flowers are borne along tall, curving spikes.

The species are many and varied, all beautiful.

They require cool-house culture with shade.

The genus is noted for its many fine natural hybrids.

It crosses readily with Miltonia to form Odontonia, considered by many growers an improvement on the parents because of the larger flowers and greater ease of growth.

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The plant is vine-like in some species, ...

The plant is vine-like in some species, but has definite pseudobulbs in others; it is epiphytic and sympodial.

The small flowers are very abundant, usually starry (slender sepals and petals as contrasted with the broad petals and sepals of Cattleya and Phalaenopsis), and frequently of brilliant, almost harsh, coloring-including all shades of red from orange to maroon.

It has an affinity for Sophronitis (sof'fron-eye-tis), with which it readily crosses to form Epiphronitis, It grows like a weed in Mexico where hedges of E. radicans axe often seen.

Plants have pseudobulbs of many and varied shapes.

Outdoors or an intermediate, cool, or hot house will serve.

(Listing and descriptions of species may be found on pages 116-17.

) Sophronitis is a genus of epiphytic, dwarf, evergreen plants similar in appearance and habit to Cattleya but requiring cooler conditions and more light.

The coloring of the flowers is very brilliant.

An intermediate or hot house will serve.

(

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Heavy strap-like roots go forth searching for ...

Heavy strap-like roots go forth searching for moisture and, owing to their habit of roving and clinging to foreign objects, constitute a considerable problem in repotting.

Erect woody stems bear flowers prolifically until the weight causes them to curve gracefully.

The structure of the flowers is exquisite, the dorsal sepal rounded, shaping to a point at the top; the side petals broad and sweeping; the two lower sepals, narrower and sometimes overlapping, forming a background for the remarkable lip, crested with yellow.

Red lines in the throat seem to signal the way to the hybridizing insects, and the fore lobes of the lip are frequently elongated into curling tendrils.

An intermediate house will serve though they prefer warmer conditions.

(Listing and descriptions of species included in this genus may be found on pages 115-16.

) Epidendrum is a hardy genus to which belong a great number of so-called 'botanicals' that, because their flowers are small and of no commercial value, are of interest only to botanists.

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In the showier species the flowers are ...

In the showier species the flowers are borne in loose racemes and have spreading sepals and petals; in others the petals are spread and tend to roll under.

In the former type the texture of the flowers is papery but shines as though sprinkled with diamond dust.

In the latter the texture is leathery or waxy and very heavy.

The lip is often very inconspicuous.

(Listing and descriptions of interesting and lovely Vandas to be grown in the hot house may be found on page 115.

) The genus Phalaenopsis boasts plants almost as beautiful as their flowers; they have smooth, shiny, large leaves, emanating from the central crown, and they lack pseudobulbs.

Called by the florists 'butterfly orchids,' in their home they are more nearly correctly known as 'moth orchids,' gleaming white and moth-like in the dark of night.

In recent years they have often replaced lilies of the valley for bridal bouquets because of the purity of their white spray-like flowers.

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Listing and descriptions of species of this ...

Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on pages 113-14.

Listing is for reference and not to tempt the amateur to produce or grow the plants.

) The genus Vanda contains many species represented by large handsome plants and a wide variety of beauty in the flowers.

By some growers considered difficult to cultivate, their charm is well worth the supplying of their particular needs and the studying of their habits.

The plants are pseudobulb-less, the leaves distichous (dis-tik-ous), or disposed in two parallel lines along the heavy, erect stem.

The tendency of the stem is to grow up toward the sun, as the surprised amateur finds when his plant reaches the roof and has no more room to grow.

The lower leaves frequently drop off.

Thick aerial roots form along the stem and, when smooth, green-tipped, and fat, indicate that the plant is progressing.

When they become shriveled and ringed, something is drastically wrong with their culture.

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This handsome spray orchid has lent itself ...

This handsome spray orchid has lent itself so well to hybridizing that it has attained a perfection in flower, of size and shape that rivals the Cattleya, and in range of color it is surpassed by no other orchid.

The aim of modern hybridizers has been to produce a flower with a dorsal sepal and petals so round that the hand cannot be seen if held behind the flower- a far cry from the slim-petaled grandparents.

Species of Cymbidium have proved strangely difficult to grow under artificial conditions, probably owing to the difficulty of giving them proper aeration.

For that reason as well as for their superior beauty and size, the hybrids are far better known than the species.

They must be grown in a cool house or outdoors.

Although there are sixty known species, only about ten of them have been used to any extent in making the many lovely hybrids.

(

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These warmer growing types have handsomely mottled...

These warmer growing types have handsomely mottled leaves.

They are the parents of the rounded-petal hybrids so prized by florists.

Cypripedium in its tropical forms is a genus highly recommended for amateurs.

It is gratifyingly prolific, easy of culture and adaptable, and one of the few that can be grown in a dwelling.

(Listing and descriptions of species with marked and unmarked leaves may be found on pages 112-13.

) The genus Cymbidium is a hardy one reaching an ever greater and well-deserved popularity.

Plants are sympodial, terrestrial, semiterrestrial, and epiphytic.

They are grown outdoors under lath in the tropics and thrive particularly on the West Coast of North America, where Southern California hopes to become the Cymbidium center of the world.

The plants have great solid pseudobulbs and very long grass-like leaves.

From the depths of this graceful foliage (waist high), the flowers climb along tall, sturdy stems, usually erect, but drooping in some species.

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The Cypripediums must be dismissed in far ...

The Cypripediums must be dismissed in far too short a space.

Williams has devoted ninety-two pages to this genus as against fifty-five for the Cattleyas and fifty-four for the Dendrobiums.

The amateur can only be urged to further independent research.

Botanists have lately decided on a complicated division altering the nomenclature of the Cypripedium, but for the present pur pose all species can be dealt with under the old inclusive name.

Cypripediums are both evergreen and deciduous.

The deciduous groups are from South America and have chiefly a specialized botanical interest.

All of North America boasts Cypripediums, but not many people are aware that the modest 'lady's slipper' and 'moccasin flower' are orchids and humble sisters to the regal Cattleya.

Cypripediums are to be found in some form practically all over the world.

(Listing and descriptions of native North American slippers may be found on page 112.

) More showy, and adaptable to greenhouse culture, the tropical Cypripediums, denizens of the Far East, are handsome plants with shiny dark-green foliage.

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Listing and descriptions of warm-growing and evergreen...

Listing and descriptions of warm-growing and evergreen and deciduous species of this genus may be found on pages 110-11.

) The genus Oncidium is a very old one.

It ranges from hot coastal regions to the cold of 12,000 feet elevation.

It is native to Mexico, Central and tropical South America, and the West Indies.

It has short, thick pseudobulbs and slender, graceful leaves.

Though the flowers are small compared to the Cattleya, they are a spray-type of considerable grace and charm.

The blooms are flat, of silky texture, resembling a dancing girl with wide-spread skirts and tiny waist.

The clear bright yellow attained by some of the species is unsurpassed.

An intermediate or cool house will serve.

(Listing and descriptions of the species of the genus Oncidium may be found on pages 111-12.

) The possibilities of each genus are so fascinating that it is only with reluctance that we pass on to the next.

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Especially in the deciduous types these canes ...

Especially in the deciduous types these canes store sufficient moisture and food to tide the plant over periods of extreme drought.

The genus is divided into deciduous and evergreen, which again divides into warm- and cool-growing plants.

All evergreen Den-drobes (the name affectionately given the genus by orchidists) are handsome plants with their leafy, graceful foliage.

They have cane-like stems, taking the place of pseudobulbs, and bear the flowers in erect panicles (clusters, as of grapes), singly at the nodes, or in drooping racemes (stems with flowers attached at intervals).

Evergreen Dendrobiums may be accommodated in the warm house.

Deciduous Dendrobiums are peculiar-looking plants, becoming dry and shriveled bamboo-like canes each year after the leaves drop off.

Amazingly, and lovelier by contrast, the flowers bud and bloom from the nodes (joints) of these dry canes.

Deciduous Den-drobes bloom on the old wood, and evergreen Dendrobes on the new growth.

They may be accommodated in the warm house and removed to a cooler spot while resting.

(

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An intermediate, or even warmer, house will ...

An intermediate, or even warmer, house will serve.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 109 f.) The genus Dendrobium is prolific and diverse, comprising some one hundred species, which vary greatly in size and shape.

It contains D. violaceoflavens (vie-o-lay-see-o-flay-vens), with sixteen-foot pseudobulbs, and D. Schneideri (sh'ny-der-eye or ee), measured in inches.

It ranges from southern Asia, particularly the Sikkhim region, through Ceylon, Malaya, Siam, China, Japan, all the large islands (the Philippines, Java, Sumatra, Borneo), and even some of the small islands, to Australia and New Zealand.

A single species has been found to adjust itself to entirely different places.

Members of the genus grow on trees, in the ground, and on bare rocks, through great extremes of temperature and elevation.

Some have been found as high as 1500 to 2000 feet in Burma at 1200 F. The Dendrobium plant is unusual in appearance, being sym-podial, epiphytic, and bulbless, but possessed of heavy cane-like stems, which also produce the papery-green leaves.

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For listing and descriptions of species of ...

For listing and descriptions of species of this genus see pages 1078.

) The genus Laelia, native to Mexico and Brazil, is closely allied to Cattleya, crossing readily with it to form the exquisite Laelio-cattleya hybrids.

The plant is very similar in habit and appearance; the pseudobulbs are slightly more angular, at times quite square, at others quite flat.

It has many aerial roots; the new leads break in more than one direction, giving it an irregular form of growth.

Either the intermediate or cooler house serves this family.

(Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 109.

) The genus Brassavola is related to Laelia and Cattleya, crossing harmoniously with them to form the exotic hybrids Brasso-cattleyas and Brassolaeliocattleyas.

The plants have small pseudo-bulbs, which are frequently compressed.

The flowers, usually white, or greenish-white, are not outstanding except for the very large, fringed lip, a characteristic handed down to the progeny.

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At last the flower buds are 'set' ...

At last the flower buds are 'set' or have begun to ripen.

Species differ in the length of time required for maturing or flowering.

The Cattleya is among the larger and showier of the species orchids-species meaning 'native' as opposed to 'hybrid.

' Coloring ranges through all shades and tints of purple, from amethyst and violet to magenta and deep red.

Brown, yellow, and green species are found among the genus.

Many of the species have alba varieties, whose flowers are pure white with a touch of green or yellow at the throat.

Important among the Cattleyas are the labiata group, those possessed of a fine, large lip, which makes them valuable as the progenitors of commercially desirable hybrids as well as for their own beauty and prodigality.

These labiates have some representative blooming, with trustworthy regularity, at every season of the year.

The intermediate or 'Cattleya' house satisfactorily serves this group.

(

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A new pseudobulb is formed and, in ...

A new pseudobulb is formed and, in a healthy, well-cared-for plant, each will be finer and larger than the last.

In case of injury to the forebulb, one of the dormant eyes of an older bulb will break.

From among the leaves at the top of the new growth the flower sheath will form.

Very disconcerting to the beginner is the habit of some species of growing or 'throwing' sheaths at the time the new growth is made up. This means that after the new bulb is completed there is a long period during which the flower sheath remains empty of buds, and the amateur despairs of ever having a flower.

Some Cattleyas even have double sheaths, which also disappoint the eager grower.

Finally, after repeatedly holding the plant against the light in search of buds, he is rewarded by discovering small dark spots at the base of the sheath.

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The Cattleya plant lacks beauty to the ...

The Cattleya plant lacks beauty to the uninitiated, being composed of longish, rounded pseudobulbs, which advance rhizome-fashion along the surface of the potting mixture, and are topped by one, two, or three long green leaves of firm leathery texture.

The average Cattleya 'puts on' or grows one new pseudobulb a year.

After several new bulbs have been formed the old ones tend to lose their leaves and roots, becoming backbulbs.

These back-bulbs are frequently referred to as poor relations, owing to their habit of sapping the energy of the growing end of the plant.

If severed and placed in a warm, moist spot they will usually respond by sending forth new growth and roots to start a new plant.

A tiny swelling or dormant eye will be found at the base of each pseudobulb in a Cattleya plant.

In proper time the eye of the youngest bulb begins to swell and break into growth, acquiring new leaves and sending out new roots.

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The epiphytic orchids, however, are of paramount...

The epiphytic orchids, however, are of paramount interest to the grower, and we shall consider them in some detail in the following paragraphs.

Botanical names of orchids are usually long and confusing and difficult to pronounce, and at first seem to offer a serious obstacle to the further study and understanding of the family.

The pronunciations suggested in the listings of the various species and hybrids on pages 107-23 are in good usage, but are by no means the only ones permissible.

The Cattleya, favored by the florist and valuable as the parent of large and showy hybrids, is perhaps the orchid best known to the public.

There are over forty species of Cattleya.

In their native state the plants grow in thick clusters on trees-frequently mahogany or a type of acacia-and are so well protected by giant stinging ants that the only way to harvest them is to cut down the tree.

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They abound through parts of Asia, the ...

They abound through parts of Asia, the islands of the South Pacific, Australia, New Zealand, Africa, and South and Central America.

The Himalayas and the Andes are also congenial to lovely orchids.

The epiphytic orchids are widely and wrongly considered to be parasites because they grow on other plants, notably trees.

The plant 'home' is actually used only for support.

In addition to the roots that cling to trees, these orchids also have aerial (epiphytic) roots that are sent forth to secure nourishment from the soluble mineral salts in the moisture-laden air and from the humus washed down into the crotches of trees and cracks of rocks.

The supply of such nourishment is plentiful in some seasons and scant in others, a fact that no doubt accounts for the five to seven years required for the slow growth from seed to bloom.

In his selection of plants, the grower may arrange his collection to include representatives of all of the above-mentioned divisions and also plan to have plants coming to bloom all through the year.

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Among them are the tall Sobralia, graceful ...

Among them are the tall Sobralia, graceful Cypripediums, Spiranthes, and fairy-flowered Habenaria.

Calypso bulbosa (or borealis) is a native of the cold reaches of the Arctic.

North America abounds in native orchids, many of which are very common and not generally recognized as orchids.

Most showy of these, the Cypripedium or well-known 'lady's slipper,' has a wide range of habitat in the United States and has attractive foliage as well as flowers.

However, few of the terrestrial orchids transplant well from their marshy homes, and it is perhaps best to seek them out and enjoy them in their native habitat.

By far the largest, most varied, and most showy of the orchid family are included in the semi-terrestrial and epiphytic groups.

These are tropical or subtropical and live on trees in the rainswept coastal jungles or on bare rocks in the hot sun.

Their elevation ranges from sea level to two thousand feet above sea level.

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Dendrobium in many species lacks pseudobulbs, but...

Dendrobium in many species lacks pseudobulbs, but even the long cane-like flower stems, along which the leaves grow in pairs, are capable of storing food and moisture.

Orchids may also be classified as saprophytic, terrestrial, semi-terrestrial, and epiphytic.

Here we will not be much concerned with the saprophytes, natives of temperate zones, since they either lack flowers entirely or have small inconspicuous flowers of interest only to the botanist.

Lacking chlorophyll, the valuable green substance in leaves by means of which is accomplished photosynthesis (the manufacture of carbohydrates, sugars and starches, through the action of the sun or light on carbon dioxide and water), the saprophyte is forced to obtain sustenance from the predigested food of decaying organic matter in the soil.

The saprophytes are typified by the Corallorhyza, whose tangled root-stock resembles coral, and the Neottis.

The terrestrial orchids are also found in the temperate zones of both hemispheres.

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The sympodial group, of which Cattleya, Laelia,...

The sympodial group, of which Cattleya, Laelia, and Coelogyne are notable examples, has a creeping rootstock, with each new growth springing from the base and alongside the last year's growth.

The new growth appears as a swelling or 'dormant' eye that at the proper time will 'break' or begin to grow.

In some genera, such as Laelia and Coelogyne, the growths will break in several directions, but in Cattleya usually in only one.

The pseudobulb, a characteristic of sympodial orchids, is a reservoir for food and moisture against times of drought and dormancy.

It differs widely according to the different genera.

The pseudobulb of Cattleya is longish, smooth, and rounded; while that of Laelia may be slightly flattened, even in some cases assuming a many-sided angular form.

Certain species have pseudobulbs that resemble small pineapples.

The pseudobulbs of Odonto-glossum and Miltonia are much flattened and compressed; those of Coelogyne are very round, short, and prolific; and those of Cymbidium very large, rounded, and stocky.

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Rudolph Schlecter's books on orchids (in German),...

Rudolph Schlecter's books on orchids (in German), and Sanders' Orchid Guide.

The year 1947 saw the publication of Sanders' Complete List of Orchid Hybrids.

The orchid family varies widely in habitat, ranging throughout the tropics, over the temperate zones of both hemispheres, and even reaching into the fringes of the Arctic.

There is a similarly wide variation in type, with several systems of classification.

The first division is into monopodial and sympodial groups, referring to the habit of growth.

The monopodial, including the Vanda and Aerides, grow continuously from a central crown, which eventually appears atop a long stem that has frequently lost its lower leaves.

Phalaenopsis, although monopodial, is stemless, but yearly grows a pair of leaves from the characteristic crown.

The leaves of monopodial orchids are heavy, leathery, fleshy, and capable of storing some quantity of moisture, but the plants must never be allowed to dry out completely.

The leaves of Vanda teres, like pine needles, do not resemble leaves, but are three to four inches long, very slender, round and succulent, and taper to a point.

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Many commercial growers pick the entire cane ...

Many commercial growers pick the entire cane on flowering and, after cutting off the blooms, lay the canes on damp, warm sand or gravel to allow plantlets to develop from the dormant eyes.

Dendrobiums are easily divided or grown from seed.

THE prospective orchidist will want to have a general knowledge of the orchid family and a survey of the individual members with whom he may want later to become more closely acquainted.

The range of choice is wide, since, as has been said, there are from fifteen to twenty thousand species.

This chapter gives a broad and general view of the field in the hope that the reader will be stimulated to further investigation.

It is intended neither as a complete list nor as a scientific description, for which Bailey's Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture is readily available.

Out of print, but occasionally found are Williams's Orchid Grower's Manual, Dr.

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When the top is cut off or ...

When the top is cut off or injured in this fashion the bottom part will probably develop adventitious plants.

This type of plant is a slow grower and needs to be very large before flowering, so that any kind of propagation is a slow and tedious process at best.

Phalaenopsis, while differing from Vanda in that it is stemless, is also of monopodial growth and not divisible.

It will occasionally throw adventitious plants from the nodes of the flower stem.

Experiments have shown that it is possible, by wrapping the flower node in damp Osmunda and keeping it warm and damp, to force the growth of a new plant.

Dendrobium, of sympodial growth, will put forth little plant-lets, complete with bulb and roots, at the slightest provocation.

These plantlets develop from the cane-like flower stems.

If the beginner keeps his Dendrobiums, especially the deciduous type, too warm and moist during the dormant season they will waste their strength in plantlets and fail to bloom.

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After two, three, or perhaps four years ...

After two, three, or perhaps four years these will be new plants and will flower.

The advantage of the backbulb type of propagation over the growing of seedlings is that the flower will exactly resemble that of the original plant, while in the seedling there is no way to tell whether it will resemble one parent plant or the other or be something entirely different.

Plants of monopodial growth, like Vanda, Renanthera, and Angraecum, with the new growth appearing continuously from the top or crown, will not divide so readily.

The only method of propagation for them, other than seed growing, is to cut off the top of the plant below several of the husky aerial roots.

On being potted, the top part may take root and become a new plant.

It is a risky practice, however, and is not especially recommended to amateurs unless for some reason the crown of the plant has become damaged and appears dead.

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In some ways, however, they are more ...

In some ways, however, they are more advantageous, in that they are simpler and produce a flower of certain appearance.

Plants of sympodial growth, that is with the new growth coming out of the base of and alongside the old bulbs, will be found to propagate readily by division.

Cattleya, Laelia, and Cym-bidium are typical of this type.

Cypripedium is frequently found to divide itself in nature even more readily than others of the type.

The Cattleya permits division as long as three or four bulbs are allowed.

Each year in the life of the Cattleya adds a new growth at the front end of the plant, and certain species may occasionally grow in two and, more rarely, in three directions.

As the new bulbs form, the old ones frequently begin to lose their leaves and roots.

They become 'poor relations,' a drag on the living plant.

On being severed from the living plant the backbulbs, as these old drybulbs are called, will, if placed in a warm, moist spot, start life over.

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One plant of Orchis maculate produced thirty ...

One plant of Orchis maculate produced thirty seed pods, each pod containing about 6,200 seeds, or a total of 186,300.

Fritz Miiller found 1,756,440 seeds in a single Maxillaria pod.

The world would be overrun by orchids were it not that the seed prospers under conditions that are equally favorable to its enemies, pests and fungi.

The orchid seed's chance for survival is further reduced by the fact that it is not in itself supplied with sufficient food but must depend on outside help-a friendly fungus called Rhizoctonia, supplanted in artificial cultivation by chemical nutrient.

Another important disadvantage of the orchid seed is that, as compared to other plants, it is singularly undifferentiated into roots, leaves, and endosperm.

The matter of propagation is of utmost concern to the grower.

Propagating from seed, which will be considered in a later chapter, is a rather technical method for beginning amateurs, but other methods of propagation, either natural or artificial, seem prosaic compared to the thrilling story of seed production and seed growing.

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Most interesting of orchids, Catasetum appears to...

Most interesting of orchids, Catasetum appears to be an exclusively male form, and Momtchanthus viridis, which has only rudimentary pollen masses, the female of the same species.

The pollination of orchids is a subject that still has ample room for original research.

Far too little is known about the subject.

Are the so-called spider orchids (Cryptostylis arachnitis) fertilized by spiders, the Arachnis muscifera, resembling flies, by flies, and the bee orchids (Bee Ophrys) by bees? Is it the putrid smell of Bulbophyllum putridum, or foetidum, that attracts, and are the attracted insects those that feed on decayed vegetable matter? Patient and close observation will be needed to discover the answers.

In addition to the great variety of inducements and ingenuity of nature to insure pollination, the orchid plant, compensating for the extreme danger threatening its very tiny and powdery seed progeny, produces this seed in great profusion.

Darwin cited an instance of one pod with approximately 6,020 fertile seeds, the plant bearing four such capsules.

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If they remained erect they would not ...

If they remained erect they would not fit.

Calopogon carries its stigma on the bottom part of the petal, and when the bee lands with a pollen load he is neatly flip-flopped into a somersault that brings the pollen on his back to proper contact.

In Cypripedium acaule the bee is attracted to the entrance by white lines, pushes through the softly drawn drapes of the pouch of the 'lady's slipper,' and sips the nectar, but when he seeks to retreat, the drapes are closed tight behind him.

By squeezing through the only open place, the hole at the top, he first scrapes the pollen on to the stigma and then, pushing past the pollen masses at the top, picks up another load.

Apparently undaunted he flies to another rosy slipper and repeats the routine.

In Catasetum the vital pollen is stored in a secret chamber inaccessible to the visitor and, as already described, is discharged by a miniature catapult at the intruding insect.

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Here he forcibly brushes the stigmatic cavity, ...

Here he forcibly brushes the stigmatic cavity, finds crests spread for him to nibble, and picks up the pollen while feeding.

He flies off and repeats the process on another Coryanthes and the cycle is completed.

In Pterostylus, after the insect enters, the labellum shuts a little trap door, forcing him to leave by the back through a passageway where the cramped quarters facilitate the performance of his function.

Masdevallia fenestra never fully opens but has tiny windows that remain open until pollination occurs, when they are drawn shut.

Darwin admitted that he was never able to determine the method of pollination for this flower.

As amazing as are these structural oddities, they are no more so than the means by which the pollen masses adapt themselves to a position suited to their proper delivery.

Rutherford Platt in This Green World has reported that the Orchis, fertilized by bees, attaches the pollen masses to the bee in erect horns, which, however, wilt down in a manner that permits them to hit exactly the waiting cavity of the next flower.

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Those having a longer nectary, like the ...

Those having a longer nectary, like the Angraecum, are pollinated by moths.

Members of the genus Vanda and perhaps of Aerides are probably pollinated by a larger moth.

Some of these that produce only a few flowers also manufacture extremely firm cement for attaching the pollen masses to the insect, preventing loss in flight.

Certain types of Cypripediums are attractive only to small bees.

Epipactus latifolia finds its needs best served by wasps.

Darwin reported that a Dr. Criiger had observed swarms of bees actually feeding on the crests of the labellum of Coryanthes, a weird flower with a hooded dorsal that appears to crouch down over the labellum.

Its most interesting characteristic is a bucket-shaped appendage peculiar to the species.

This is filled with a slow-dripping fluid, not a nectar, whose purpose seems to be to wet the wings of the hungry bee when he passes the slippery sides and thus force him to creep through a narrow passage.

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When an uninvited bee enters the greenhouse ...

When an uninvited bee enters the greenhouse and pollinates a bloom being cherished for a special exhibit, the flower responds by blushing violently and soon thereafter folds its petals or 'wilts,' much to the distress of the grower.

Nature's schemes for perpetuation of the orchid species work with wonderful precision.

A peculiar balance seems to be observed in that rarer and less productive orchids have developed a more complicated and thus more accurate and certain method of cross-pollination.

Self-pollination is discouraged by nature.

Even in the few orchids capable of it, the process seems only to be used when insects fail to appear.

The process of pollination is comparatively simple in genera with large, open flowers, having short, fairly wide, easily accessible nectaries as, for example, Cattleya, Laelia, Phaius, Sophro-nites, Bletia, Coelogyne, and Cymbidium.

Bees readily perform the service.

In greenhouses with wide-open vents the bees frequently pollinate indiscriminately and many wilted flowers result.

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After pollination the male pollen cells travel ...

After pollination the male pollen cells travel down a long passage to fertilize the waiting egg.

This requires a period of twenty-four hours or longer, and sometimes fails entirely.

If fertilization has taken place, the ovary begins to swell and the fruit or seed pod begins to form below the flower.

Maturation will require from nine to eighteen months, depending on the species.

Seeds require five to seven years or more to produce blooming plants, although some of the so-called 'botanicals' may require less.

Beauty and use seem to go hand-in-hand in the orchid family.

The lovely petals and sepals of the flowers guard and protect the vital organs hidden in the labellum: in some cases as extra protection they never entirely open, and in others they fold as soon as the flower has been pollinated.

This last evidence of protection often comes as a shock to the amateur orchid grower.

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Some wear shining white that gleams in ...

Some wear shining white that gleams in the moonlight and draws night-flying moths.

Once arrived at the flower, the insect's path is not left to chance but is carefully charted.

Lines on the lip lead inward, crests are raised to keep his steps from straying, dark spots on the bright throats, or the large white spots common to some species and called 'eyes,' act as beacons.

Although the flowers differ in their insect-attracting characteristics, there is one feature common to all: the insect must always pass the empty receptive stigmatic cavity first, thus depositing his load of pollen before feeding and picking up more pollen.

In most of the flowers the exaggerated labellum twists from normal to flatten out and form a welcome mat to the feast within.

After pollination, this mat is lifted or twisted back to normal to prevent further intrusion.

The ovary lies just behind the column and part-way down the stem.

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In some species the insect is not ...

In some species the insect is not allowed to enter the storage chamber but, by lighting on the labellum, he releases a tiny gun that projects the pollen masses toward him in the shape of a blunt arrow.

With this attached to his body he flies to the next flower where, as he sups, the arrow of pollen fits neatly into the cavity.

He probably picks up another load of precious pollen as he leaves, and hunger, or perhaps the memory of his recent feast, leads him again to the proper flower, where he once more deposits his burden.

Most flowers offer nectar but some offer solid food to the insect performing the pollination service.

Insects have been observed feeding on the crest, a crisp ridge on the labellum.

Some pervade the air with perfume, while others bring visitors by their handsome size and showy color.

Small inconspicuous flowers cluster together on the stems to win attention.

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The anthers produce tiny powdery grains of ...

The anthers produce tiny powdery grains of fertile pollen, usually held together by a mysterious viscid fluid that hardens on exposure to air and is not affected by wind or rain.

The stigmatic cavity with its receptive ovum (egg) waits for the 'marrying' insect to deposit pollen from another flower.

The labellum serves in three capacities: it provides storage space for the pollen, an antechamber to the ovary, and a banquet room for the insect.

On entering any orchid flower the insect must first brush the empty stigmatic cavity in his search for the nectar or other food.

Drunk with the repast, he blunders out, the narrow passage compelling him on the way to brush past the pollen masses, which become dislodged and, because of the sticky fluid, adhere to him.

These masses hold firmly until he enters another flower of the same species.

The feeding position is ideal for depositing the pollen.

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Darwin immediately predicted that some day a ...

Darwin immediately predicted that some day a moth with a proboscis at least twelve inches long would be discovered to be responsible for cross-pollination of this peculiar orchid.

In time such a moth was found and was duly named Xanthopan morgani praedicta.

In this particular alliance it is probable that the moth would starve without the orchid and that the orchid would become extinct without the moth.

Such high specialization has insured the purity of species that has marked the progress of the orchid family.

This specialization is reflected in the extremely varied forms of the reproductive organs.

These organs lie within the lip, more scientifically known as the labellum, along a fleshy enlargement called the column.

The anther-bearing stamens are usually sealed together into the column, and a projection of this elongated fleshy organ is the rostellum, whose purpose seems to be to separate the pollen and the stigmatic cavity, thus minimizing the danger of self-pollination.

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The highest means of perpetuation in plants, ...

The highest means of perpetuation in plants, cross-pollination is necessary in all but a very few species of orchids.

In the few cases of self-pollination the seeds are frequently infertile.

The insects performing the service of cross-pollination vary with the species and are as diverse as the ingenious contrivances by which the orchids utilize them.

It is in every case a reciprocal arrangement, the plant receiving the benefits of fertilization, the insect the largess of food and drink.

Each species usually has its particular insect, as is shown by the special means each flower uses to attract its insect.

Darwin first noted a striking example of this specialization.

On a trip to South America he had an opportunity to see a plant of Angraecum sesquipedale.

This starry-white flower, a rare orchid of Madagascar, has a weirdly elongated lip containing a nectary, about eleven inches long, that holds one-and-a-half ounces of the sweet fluid produced by the sugar-secreting glands.

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Dr. E. Soysa, writing in Orchid Culture ...

Dr. E. Soysa, writing in Orchid Culture in Ceylon, advances the delightful and plausible, if unproved, theory that orchids antedated the fossil era, but in their love of light ascended trees to escape the advancing jungle.

There they lived, died, dried up, and floated away, leaving no trace.

Whatever the genesis of the orchid family, it cannot be doubted that the orchid family is very old, judging both by its great variety and its highly complex structural development, attainable only through the passage of time.

The orchid is among the largest and most highly developed of the plant families, with some fifteen to twenty thousand species.

A provident nature has lavished every means to insure the perpetuation of this favorite child.

She has provided the flower with all the charm and allure of a fairy princess to win insect vassals to perform the service of cross-pollination.

Nature has decreed that the orchid should be dependent on some outside insect agent, and the resultant relation is a beautiful example of cooperation between the plant and animal kingdoms.

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Many fine orchid books, first printed in ...

Many fine orchid books, first printed in expensive limited editions, have been long out of print, and others, published abroad, have not been translated.

In the following pages we shall contribute our small share to building the foundation of a more general interest in and understanding of orchid culture.

Beginning with a glimpse into the life secrets of the orchid and continuing through to the rather specialized knowledge required for growing orchids from seed, the aim of the book is to make a fascinating and worth-while hobby available to thousands.

Once the way has been opened, the amateur will find many adventurous and rewarding by-paths to explore on his own.

THE beginnings of the orchid family are shrouded in mystery.

Since most orchids are epiphytic-that is, having aerial roots through which they receive sustenance from the minerals in the moisture-laden air of the tropics-they have left no traces such as the fossilized remains of ground-growing plants.

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However, when the beginner, eager but ignorant,...

However, when the beginner, eager but ignorant, seeks published information on the growing of orchids, he may be discouraged by the dearth of information.

Where growers of garden-variety flowers find an almost bewildering wealth of literature, the would-be orchid grower bumps up against what seems to be a wall of secrecy.

This wall once was impregnable-each orchid hunter, grower, and hybridizer jealously guarded finds from curious and covetous eyes-but today there is an organized effort to popularize the growing of orchids by dispersing information through amateur groups and bulletins.

If the amateur will play fair with the commercial grower, he can obtain much valuable information even from him.

The amateur need only remember the important fact that to the professional the sale of orchids is a means of making a living, while to the amateur it is a means of securing pleasure and perhaps pin-money.

There is now no deliberate conspiracy to conceal information about orchid growing, but there is still too little material available for the amateur.

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THE grower of orchids is favored above ...

THE grower of orchids is favored above other men.

He belongs to a starry-eyed fraternity, to whom each small chore, accomplished in its turn for the better culture of his orchids, is a source of never-ending and absorbing delight.

The beauty of the orchid's line and color is known to all who bask in the offerings of the florist's window, but the breathless suspense and expectation that attend the unfolding of the mysterious growth of the orchid plant are known to the grower alone.

The appearance of each new growth and root is cause for rejoicing; the slimy mark of a snail or the cottony warning of the presence of scale is cause for distress.

The habits and idiosyncrasies of every species and plant are subject to absorbed study.

Different methods of growing and the relative merits of hybrids and species are endlessly discussed among fellow growers.

The orchid grower checks his mundane worries at the door of the greenhouse and enters a world that offers surcease even to the heart heavily burdened with sorrow and loss.

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Charlesworth.

O. Tyana (Odtna.

Nesta x O. St. James).

Petals...

Charlesworth.

O. Tyana (Odtna.

Nesta x O. St. James).

Petals mahogany-red, tipped and spotted white; white-dusted lip.

Black and Flory.

O. Olga (Odontonia Thisbe x O. crispum).

White with chestnut-red lip.

Charlesworth.

PRIZE-WINNING HYBRIDS MANY orchid societies give local awards for outstanding plants, but it is the British Royal Horticultural Society that is internationally recognized as setting the standards of orchid breeding.

The following is a list and brief description of hybrids that have received the First Class Certificate (F.C.C.) or Award of Merit (A.M.) of the Royal Horticultural Society from the latter part of 1946 through early 1948.

In going through any list of prize-winning plants, the reader will note the frequent appearance of 'var.

so and so.' When a seedling proves to be of really outstanding merit, it is customary to dignify it with a varietal name, e.g. he. Jervis Bay, var.

Our King.

Perhaps one plant from a batch of seedlings will prove unusual and it will receive a varietal name.Although any hybridizer is free to give varietal names, certain names, given by growers of genuine discrimination, have been generally recognized.

Sir George Holford of Westonbirt has produced flowers of such excellence and renown that Westonbirt as a varietal name is a badge of quality.

Another such name is Gatton, home of Sir Jeremiah Coleman.

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The Odontonias resulting from the union of ...

The Odontonias resulting from the union of these two species retain the beauty of both and in some way have their life and growth habits strengthened so as to grow successfully in the Cattleya house.

The Odontonias bloom from April to May.

Many of the hybrids are sterile and, owing to the delicacy of the parent plants, seed is difficult to grow, so the plants are rare.

Among the outstanding Odontonias, with parent plants and growers listed, are: Odontonia Avril Gay (M. Duchess of York x O. Serapis).

Rosy-mauve to crimson-purple on white ground.

Charlesworth.

O. Arima (M. Nesta x O. Purple Queen).

Sepals and petals chocolate-red; lip red and white with golden disc.

Charlesworth.

O. Alexandra (M. Merope x O. Crethus).

Sepals and petals purple; lip white spotted with red.

Charlesworth.

O. Cardinalis (M. Lyceana x O. Purple Queen).

Petals cardinal red tipped with white; lip white with red spots.

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Psyche) and P. Winged Victory (P. Elizabethae ...

Psyche) and P. Winged Victory (P. Elizabethae x P. La Canada), by Orchid Research of California in 1946, are whites of extreme size, leathery texture, and round shape.

Phalaenopsis Reve Rose (P. Algers x P. Schilleriana), by Veitch in 1932, is capable of producing flowers of dusky rose, lacking the veining considered unattractive in the pink Schilleriana.

Phalaenopsis Gilles Gratiot (P. amabilis x P. Rimestadiana), by Dr. Gratiot in 1920, is a primary hybrid found in the background of many later hybrids.

Among the hybrids showing great promise of improvement over the parents are the Odontonias.

Odontoglossum crispum and its hybrids are spray flowers of outstanding texture, color, and beauty, but for some growers they present a problem in blooming.

Similarly, Miltonia is a plant of fragile characteristics and difficult for some growers to treat successfully.

Miltonia blooms, with the distinctive butterfly mask around the lip and throat of the pansy face, are of delicate beauty and unsurpassed color.

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Cymbidium eburneo-Lowianum, hybrid of eburneum (white and...

Cymbidium eburneo-Lowianum, hybrid of eburneum (white and creamy-white, deep yellow disc on lip), and Lowianum (yellowish-green with cream lip, rich crimson border) were combined with insigne (whitish, suffused pink, lip dotted dark crimson, and all flushed crimson-purple) to form a parent of such outstanding worth that it is world famous.

Cymbidium Pauwelsii, developed by Pauwels in 1911, while of simpler pedigree (insigne x Lowianum), is also widely known as a satisfactory parent.

A third type of family tree is more complicated, as illustrated by the ancestry of one of the Brassolaeliocattleya.

Some specific developments in the hybrid field are interesting enough to merit brief review.

A great deal has been done in the development of fine Phalaenopsis hybrids.

They are not of great number but are of outstanding quality.

Gravel culture has been responsible for the growth of large round Phalaenopsis of complicated parentage.

Phalaenopsis Altadena (P. La Canada x P.

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There are several types of family tree.

These...

There are several types of family tree.

These examples should give the reader an idea of how a family tree might be prepared in any particular instance.

The family tree of the primary hybrid is rather simple.

The pedigrees of some famous plants read like lines of royalty.

Cymbidium Swallow, descended from the very distinguished C. Alexanderi, Westonbirt var.

(F.C.C., R.H.S.) and the equally distinguished C. Pauwelsii, Comte d'Hemptinne var.

(F.C.C., R.H.S.), has a bewildering number of excellent qualities.

Among them are its variation and purity of color, whether it be cream, flush-pink, or yellow-pink, or fine white-the latter surprising in view of the fact that the Pauwelsii is intensely colored.

The shape and texture are round and crisp.

The habit of growth is strong.

Cymbidium Alexanderi, the first parent, was developed in 1911 by Sir George Holford of Westonbirt (home of many famous crosses), Tetbury, Gloucester, England.

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The size of the resulting Brassolaeliocattleya is...

The size of the resulting Brassolaeliocattleya is enormous and the color range wide.

Many of the modern Brassolaeliocattleyas are so full and round that the hand can be hidden by a single flower.

The grower will be enabled to work toward those qualities he most values by keeping careful records of his hybrids.

In compiling such a record the following suggestions may prove of value.

1. On first receiving a choice hybrid, record the name, par entage, grower, and, if possible, the hybridizer and the date of hybridizing.

2. From personal observation record the date of blooming, quality, color, texture, and number of flowers.

3. By comparing notes with other growers, note possible varia tion in color and blooming time.

1. An exciting phase of orchid study is the tracing of the family tree of any given hybrid.

Occasionally the direct antecedents of a hybrid cannot be determined, but usually the original species' parents can be ascertained and will provide a useful key to the future of the hybrid, its appearance, habits, and successful culture.

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sheen or coppery overlay to a dominantly ...

sheen or coppery overlay to a dominantly purple flower, he. luminosa aurea (Cattleya Dowiana aurea x Laelia tenebrosa), by Charlesworth in 1901, has been frequently used in hybridizing with a pleasing iridescent result.

Perhaps the greatest triumph of the hybridizers has been the Brassolaeliocattleya.

The Cattleya had been found to cross most readily with Brassavola Digbyana, insignificant except for an extra-large frilled lip, to produce well-shaped flowers with a full, fringed lip.

The Brassocattleya, in spite of size and beauty of lip and color, frequently has the disadvantage of 'starry,' narrow sepals and petals as well as poor texture, so that it does not keep well.

It also rarely blooms with more than one flower, although there are outstanding exceptions, such as Be. Mme Charles Maron (B. Digbyana x C. gigas).

By adding Laelia to the Brassocattleya perfection was reached.

The Laelia stands firmly erect, and its influence was to strengthen the weak dorsal of the simpler cross.

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Cattleya Mossiae Wagnerii, the pure white form,...

Cattleya Mossiae Wagnerii, the pure white form, or certain of its hybrids pulls progeny toward May and June.

Cattleya gigas is used to advance reluctant bloomers to the desirable season from December to June.

The securing of yellow color is another problem that has been tackled through hybridization.

Yellow is desirable in an orchid flower but difficult to obtain.

The pollen of yellow-flowering or 2 See Orchid Digest, July-Aug.

1947, and the American Orchid Society Bulletin, May 1948.

chids is frequently infertile, and even many of the yellow hybrids seem lacking in some vital element, producing crippled growths.

Yellow color derives chiefly from Cattleya Dowiana aurea, which is of clear golden tone, with a rich velvety maroon or crimson lip and splashy gold stripes in the throat.

Also used are Cattleya bicolor, a greenish-bronze species of Brazil, and Laelia tenebrosa, with purplish-brown sepals and petals and a purple lip.

The latter in some instances gives a bronzy

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As one of them has commented, most ...

As one of them has commented, most growers 'are too busy growing orchids to find time to write,' but the exceptions to this rule give some insight into the problems for which a solution is sought through hybridization.

Everest McDade has published interesting material on changing the blooming period of certain genera, particularly the Cattleya and allied groups, so that the popular whites come in the busy season from Christmas through June rather than from July to December.

2 His conclusion is that, if the blooming season in the hybrid is to be influenced, it is necessary to choose parents with a known, dependable, dominant blooming season.

Cattleya Mossiae, commonly called the Easter orchid, has the tendency to postpone summer blooms till fall and winter blooms till spring.

Cattleya Mossiae Reineckiana, white with a colored lip, or some of its more available hybrids is of value as a parent because it can be depended upon to bloom in May or June.

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Calanthe Dominyi, the first orchid hybrid produced...

Calanthe Dominyi, the first orchid hybrid produced under greenhouse conditions, a union of C. Masuca and C. furcata, was developed in 1853 by a grower for Veiteh and Sons at the suggestion of John Harris, an Exeter surgeon.

The production of hybrids has, since that time, attained such proportions as to make listing and classification a task of the first magnitude.

Sanders7 Complete List of Orchid Hybrids, published in 1947 under the sponsorship of the American Orchid Society, requires 566 pages to list registered hybrids through 1 January 1946.

There was no space in that fat volume for description or data on culture.

The interested grower must compile his own records.

Material may be obtained from personal observation, from conversation with fellow growers and experts, and from bulletins of the many orchid societies and occasional articles in horticultural bulletins such as those issued by the Missouri Botanical Gardens and New York Botanical Garden.

Much information may also be derived from the catalogues of commercial orchid establishments.

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Even four-generic crosses have gone into some ...

Even four-generic crosses have gone into some hybrids.

The combination of names in such cases is so unwieldy that coined names are used: e.g. Potinara referring to the hybrid of Brassavola, Laelia, Cattleya, and the brilliantly colored Sophronitis.

As has been noted, certain genera will not cross with others.

The failure of a plant to produce fertile seed when crossed with another plant may be the result of a difference in chromosome number, although there are many other possible causes.

Many inquiries are under way in this highly technical field of research, but published information is very limited.

1 The failure of a genus to cross with another does not, however, entirely rule out hybridization.

Cymbidiums do not combine with other genera, but crosses within the genus have come in for their share of glory, the progeny being much improved in form, shape, texture, and clearness of color.

Hybrids between species of the same genera, such as the Cymbidium crosses, are called interspecific hybrids as distinct from the intergeneric variety.

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Constant experimentation in the production of hybrids...

Constant experimentation in the production of hybrids has been going on for many years.

Some genera have been found to be definitely incompatible, but many others are cross fertile and can be made to produce interesting, often remarkable, flowers.

The crosses between genera are referred to as bi-generic.

The most famous bi-generic cross is important for purely historic and horticultural reasons, having no commercial value.

This cross was Epiphronitis Veitchii (Epidettdrum radicans, scarlet species of Mexico) with Sophronitis grandiEora (bright orange species of Brazil), recorded by Veiteh and judged by the Royal Horticultural Society to be the outstanding hybrid of 1890, receiving the First Class Certificate (F.C.C.). Crosses of three genera are tri-generic.

The most popular and famous is the hybrid of much commercial value, the Brassolaelio-cattleya, combining the crisp texture of the narrow-petaled Laelia with the more rounded Cattleya and adding the only outstanding feature of Brassavola, a very full, showy lip.

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BY DEFINITION hybrid means the offspring of ...

BY DEFINITION hybrid means the offspring of two animals or plants of different races, varieties, species, or genera.

The reproductive processes of the orchid are such that, with few exceptions, the genera do not intermingle readily, so the generic lines remain uniquely pure.

It has been observed that in the few cases where, under natural conditions, members of the same orchid genus united the resulting hybrid was usually superior to either parent.

An example of this is Cattleya Dowiana crossed with Cattleya gigas resulting in Cattleya Hardyana, a fine round flower of gigas mauve enriched with the iridescence of the Dowiana (yellow with dark red lip).

The purposes of the grower in developing hybrids have been to increase the stock, to increase the size and number of flowers, to change and improve the color of flowers, to improve the growth habits of the plant, and to throw strength into a weak line.

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Means of washing out the gravel at ...

Means of washing out the gravel at regular intervals must be provided to prevent the building up of chemical concentrations harmful to the plant.

6. Ability to adjust pll and balance of the nutrient to suit light conditions.

This ability will have to be based on observation and experience.

7. Careful checking of pH and formula balance at regular in tervals.

8. Heat and moisture modulated by air conditions to the needs of the species involved.

9. Close observation of the effect of the solutions on the plant as evinced by texture and color of leaves and strength and growth of the roots.

The grower who watches the response of plants to the methods employed will be well rewarded.

Success in growing orchids depends on finding the method of culture best suited to utilize the inadequate root system to the highest possible degree.

To date, gravel culture seems to be that method of culture.

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Water is added to the storage tank ...

Water is added to the storage tank to compensate for evaporation.

The formula is flushed through the containers whenever the gravel seems dry-about every seven to ten days in spring, every three days in summer, and every two or three weeks in late fall and winter.

This time would vary according to climatic conditions in the area.

This grower has used Knudson's solutions, the Missouri Botanical Garden formula, and Plant-Chem, but modifies all of them by using calcium sulphate instead of calcium nitrate and ammonium phosphate instead of potassium phosphate.

Success in the gravel culture of orchids requires: 1.

A well-balanced nutrient solution.

2. A well-aerated inert medium such as gravel or Haydite in which plants can find firm footing.

3. Inert containers.

Clay pots or cement or metal tanks may be used.

Metal must be painted with inert material such as asphaltum paint to prevent chemical reactions between metal and nutrients.

4. Proper account must be taken of the possibility of pipe or fittings freeing too large a concentration of iron, copper, man ganese, or other metal, thus upsetting the balance of the formula.

5.

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W. B. Olsen of Berkeley, California, an ...

W. B. Olsen of Berkeley, California, an experienced grower who has been particularly successful with artificial feeding of Phalaenopsis, reports that he does not add iron to the original formula, but, if plants need it, one dram or teaspoon of soluble ferric phosphate is added to fifty-five gallons of the formula.

4 Usually the formula picks up enough iron from the pipe or fittings.

In order to keep his formula balanced, once a month Mr. Olsen adds one-half of the chemical formula to the solution in the storage tank.

Every three months he empties gravel from the containers, repaints with two coats of asphaltum paint, replaces gravel and plants (choosing a bright day to insure no set-back to the plants), and flushes the containers to within one inch of the top of the gravel.

The solution is left in the containers for three or four hours and is then drained off and returned to the storage tank.

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Tanks were filled with Haydite, one-fourth- to ...

Tanks were filled with Haydite, one-fourth- to one-sixth-inch grade.

Cattleya seedlings, flooded with the solution every other day, responded magnificently.

Gravel, tried later, was felt to be better because it was less absorbent than Haydite.

Later work at the Garden has shown success in transplanting seedlings directly from flasks into five-inch bulb pans with coarse, well-washed Haydite in the bottom of the pans and a topping of very fine granite or Haydite put through a one-eighth-inch mesh screen.

Filled pans are sterilized in a pressure cooker to kill any fungus that might attack the tiny seedlings.

Plantlets are placed in the fine gravel about a half-inch apart.

These community pots are then placed in a ventilated Wardian case and sprayed whenever the gravel becomes dry.

Water should be acidified, if no peat is used, to pH 5.0 by adding phosphoric acid.

Pans are watered once a week with nutrient solution.

After remaining in the community pot for six months to a year, they can be transplanted to either gravel or Osmunda.

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Seedlings made two, three, and even four ...

Seedlings made two, three, and even four growths per year, apparently taking no rest and with the plant healthy and vigorous.

Roots were extended and strong.

Seedlings bloomed one to two years earlier than check groups in Osmunda.

Pests did not bother the gravel-cultured plants.

Perhaps most important was that root breakage, seemingly unavoidable in potting and repotting plants in ordinary media, was entirely lacking in gravel potting, and this seemed to be a major factor in the uninterrupted growth of the plants.

The formula used at the Missouri Botanical Garden was that for flask culture of orchid seed, except that the iron content was increased to 0.25 gm. to each liter and a pH of 5.0 was maintained by the addition of phosphoric acid.

Plants were placed in a metal tank carefully painted with two coats of asphaltum (Grade A) paint, as chemical reaction on metal in the tank or from pipe or fittings can upset the balance of the formula and may harm the plants.

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cm. Roots in tubes filled with solution.

Roots...

cm. Roots in tubes filled with solution.

Roots im mersed, unaerated 3.

4 cm. The conclusion is that the root needs air as much as food, and that a medium allowing access to both is ideal.

2 Haydite or gravel culture may be the answer.

Many other state universities, as well as the Missouri Botanical Garden under Dr. David Fairburn and Orchid Research under Dr. Henry Eversole, have been doing interesting and valuable work on the problem of orchid nutrients.

The results of the work of Dr. Fairburn may be summarized as follows:3 1. Hybrid Cattleya seedlings grow well in most nutrient solu tions.

2. Haydite was superior to cinders and Meramec gravel as a rooting medium.

3. Seedlings damped off or rotted if the gravel, cinders, or Hay dite were kept too wet (the need of the root to breathe, again).

The greatest success in Dr. Fairburn's experiments was with seedlings, particularly Cattleyas.

Adult Cattleyas were found to make good root growth but poor top growth.

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More positive results have been noted with ...

More positive results have been noted with Cattleya seedings and Phalaenopsis.

The latter, with their flat strap-like roots and spreading habit of growth, do particularly well in gravel or Haydite.

Recent experiments, performed under the direction of Dr. R. A. Davis at the University of California at Berkeley, have been undertaken to clarify the needs of the orchid plant under cultivation.

The orchid, while highly evolved in many respects, is singularly weak in two important factors-the seed and the roots.

The orchid root is very inefficient as compared to that of plants like rye or wheat.

These inadequate roots must not only provide nourishment but also air.

Controlled experiments revealed the following: Average growth Experimental condition after 5 weeks Roots placed in aerated tubes with 1" of solution, root tips just above the solution 21.

5 cm. Roots in tubes filled with solution and vigorously aerated.

Roots immersed 17 cm. Root tips just above solution level in filled unaerated tubes 4.

4

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It is doubtful if they knew why ...

It is doubtful if they knew why these media were good.

The alternate watering and drying out of the potting material released the stored food and dried out the roots, preventing rotting.

In other words, the roots were aerated and could breathe.

The conditions of their native habitat were sufficiently approximated.

As it is the nature of man never to be satisfied, however, growers still felt that supplementary feeding might accelerate growth and flower production, but found in the experiment that Osmunda and Polypodium are no longer ideal media.

They break down rapidly and become sour.

Roots begin to rot and the plant suffers.

Eventually there is a concentration of chemicals, which even frequent flushings with clear water will not wash away.

The very special technique of gravel or Haydite culture may be the answer to this problem of feeding epiphytes.

Both are inert and form a good base for the roots that support the plant.

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As has been shown, the feeding of ...

As has been shown, the feeding of terrestrial orchids is not complicated.

Food may simply be added to the potting material as needed.

Foods commonly used are bone meal, blood meal, leaf mold, rat's nest, manure (well-rotted and carefully used to prevent burning), and any of the nutrient formulas (such as Knudson's 'B' or 'C') or the commercial preparations specifically recommended for orchids, such as Plant-Chem.

Mr. Robert Casamajor of Southern California has worked out an elaborate calendar for Cymbidium feeding.

1 He feeds regularly every two weeks, using a stronger solution during active growth than after flower growths appear, and maintaining a pH 4.9-5.

0. Artificial feeding of epiphytes is a much more complex problem.

After first being discouraged by the great casualty rate among tropical orchids that were treated like earth plants, early growers hit upon the very successful method of potting them in Polypo dium, Osmunda, tree fern, or English peat.

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There were hopes that the growth rate ...

There were hopes that the growth rate could be speeded up, the rest period dispensed with, and the production of flowers increased if a proper adjustment between minerals, moisture, aeration, and light could be worked out.

Although if some of the wilder hopes have been dimmed, there is still reason to believe that much can be accomplished.

The peculiar roots of the orchid permit absorption when food and moisture are available, and prohibit an excess of transpiration during drought.

The adjustment of artificial feeding to these roots seems to be a problem for the scientist with a knowledge of chemistry and a feeling for growing plants.

But amateurs have successfully invaded the field.

They have shown that one of the most important factors of artificial feeding is an intelligent application of conclusions drawn from close observation of the effects of such feeding.

Some of these conclusions are that a plant that has plenty of light but whose leaves remain yellow probably needs iron; that too much nitrogen produces a beautiful green growth but may slow down flower production; and that precipitation of chemicals in the medium will injure the plant after a short period of well-being.

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Frequent tropical rains slowly release available food...

Frequent tropical rains slowly release available food materials and frequent drying winds aerate the roots and prevent any unhealthy chemical development.

Plentiful sunshine steps up the process of photosynthesis and the orchid thrives until the dry months bring an enforced rest period.

Not all epiphytic orchids are good subjects for supplementary-feeding experiments.

Cattleyas grow so well in greenhouses on a simple diet of Osmunda and Polypodium that, as long as they are properly repotted every two or three years, any need of extra nourishment is unlikely.

Phalaenopsis, on the other hand, grow and bloom so prolifically that they soon exhaust their food supply.

Since they do not respond well to repotting, there is a real need for artificial feeding.

The slowness of orchid growth, the long periods of plant inactivity, and the difficulty of raising orchids from seed long ago led growers to experiment with artificial feeding.

The results were often confusing and, more frequently, discouraging.

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They are often found on trees or ...

They are often found on trees or logs, a position that really classifies them as semi-terrestrial.

Wherever found, they send out long, searching roots into the leaf mold at the base of the tree or under the log.

When fed richly, their heavy, round, corky roots attain great size and length.

The soil in which they thrive varies exceedingly and it is comparatively easy to satisfy them under cultivation.

Growers who disagree on all other points of culture see eye-to-eye on the advisability of supplementary feeding of Cymbidiums.

The epiphytic group includes Cattleyas, Phalaenopsis, Vandas, Dendrobiums, Laelias, and Oncidiums.

Large numbers of epiphytic orchids, which obtain sustenance from chemicals in the moisture of the air, are found perched like nesting birds in the crotches of jungle trees.

They usually send out two types of roots: one flat and straplike, that wind around the host for support and cling so tightly that they must be broken to release the hold; and the other, more flexible, that dangle in the air or penetrate the accumulated debris of dust, rotting leaves, and bird lime in the tree crotch.

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The areas where orchids are usually found ...

The areas where orchids are usually found seem to provide these minerals only in the most minute quantities, which are slowly released.

The exact sources vary with the type of orchid.

Orchids, as we have seen, are divided into groups defined largely by the method of securing food.

The two major groupings are terrestrial and epiphytic.

There are sub-divisions into semi-terrestrial and semi-epiphytic, but in a consideration of feeding we need be concerned only with the major groupings.

The terrestrial group, as the name indicates, grow in soil.

Many North American orchids are found in shadowy, marshy, rich ground or in springy mountain meadows near streams.

Cypripe-diums, Spiranthes, and Habenaria are among this group.

They are exquisite even when tiny, but resist all efforts to domesticate them.

Tropical Cypripediums are also terrestrial but are successfully grown under greenhouse conditions.

Cymbidiums, native to many areas of the Far East, make up a large and valuable portion of the terrestrial group.

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From this point on, success with the ...

From this point on, success with the seedlings lies in keeping them moving right along.

They should be repotted at least every eight months.

The second potting may take them directly to an Osmunda medium in either thumb pots or other community pots containing ten to fifteen plants.

When this move has been completed, they may be treated like adult plants, with only a bit more attention to watering, potting, and air conditions.

Growing orchids from seed is an arduous task, but growers who have had the experience will attest that blooms so produced bring a feeling of accomplishment unique in orchid culture.

THE ability of the apparently inadequate root system of the orchid to procure its necessary life-giving minerals from the most improbable sources is a minor but happy miracle.

These minerals are nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, and carbon.

Combined, by photosynthesis, with proper amounts of hydrogen and oxygen, these minerals sustain all plant life.

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Small holes may be prepared in the ...

Small holes may be prepared in the medium by using a small, sharpened stick or tweezers.

The root end is placed in the hole and the medium gently pressed around it. Each pot will accommodate from twenty to twenty-five baby orchids.

As the seedlings do best in the company of others, we have the 'community pot.

' These pots may be put in a shaded part of the warm greenhouse, although some cautious growers prefer to seclude them in a Wardian case.

Community pots in the greenhouse may be covered lightly with a pane of glass, but simple protection from the sun appears to be sufficient.

They must not become chilled or too wet, for they will damp off.

It is disastrous, however, to allow them to dry out, as dried-out seedlings will disappear overnight.

As the seedlings are delicate, naturally all precautions against snails, slugs, thrips, and aphis must be taken.

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The flasks should be kept at an ...

The flasks should be kept at an even temperature of not lower than 650 F. nor higher than 8oø F. A temperature of somewhat above the 65 ø minimum is most desirable.

The flasks should be kept by themselves in some kind of an enclosure (a Wardian case in the greenhouse is excellent) where they may be protected from sun and excessive moisture and moved as little as possible.

This stage of culture will last from eight months to over a year.

When incipient roots up to a quarter of an inch long appear, the seedlings are ready for repotting.

Polypodium seems a very congenial medium.

A mixture of shredded Polypodium and ver miculite is ideal.

This is patted damply and firmly (although extremes in both are to be avoided) into two- or three-inch pots.

The tiny plants can be shaken onto a clean Turkish towel or into a saucer of clean water, separated gently from remaining agar, dried slightly, and placed in some regular order in the pots.

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A platinum needle or loop, which may ...

A platinum needle or loop, which may be readily sterilized in flame, is ideal, but a long-handled spoon, a pipette, or an eye-dropper are all satisfactory.

Sterilized seed is floated in a vial containing a bit of distilled water.

The seeds (so tiny that they have the appearance of powder) are taken up with the tool and scattered over the planting surface in the flask or tube.

A rolled stopper of cotton (flamed to kill fungus) should have been kept in the mouth of the flask, being removed only long enough to permit the seed to be placed inside.

It may be necessary to rotate the flask rapidly to spread the seed evenly in the medium.

Seed should not be allowed to fall on the sides of the flask, and crowding should be avoided.

After the seed has been introduced, the cotton stopper should again be flamed over a Bunsen burner and the mouth of the flask and the stopper wrapped lightly with paper.

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It should be watched and stirred to ...

It should be watched and stirred to avoid burning.

The nutrients should be dissolved in a small amount of distilled water and then added to the remainder of the water.

While this mixture is kept just below the boiling point, the agar and sugar should be added.

The whole should be mixed thoroughly, tested for pH, and poured into the waiting flasks or tubes.

Use of a funnel will prevent the mixture from adhering to the mouth and sides of the receptacle.

The flasks or tubes are then sterilized in the autoclave, pressure cooker, or oven.

It is wise to test the pH again after sterilizing.

If the medium is then too acid, a few drops of o.i normal sodium hydroxide will provide proper compensation.

Tests for acidity may be made with indicator strips of nitrazene papers, a potentiometer, or a La Motte Block Comparator.

The materials are now ready for the final operation of 'planting.

'

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Such a case, with armholes at the ...

Such a case, with armholes at the sides so that work can be done under aseptic conditions, prevents contamination from air or breath and yet gives good visibility.

Such elaborate precautions may be obviated by the sterilizing procedure suggested by McAlpine.

It is still advisable, however, to spray lightly if an ordinary room is used.

Fungi spores travel on dust particles floating in the air, and spraying causes them to fall to the floor.

New methods of air-conditioning and electronic dust removal will simplify this problem in the future.

The planting medium must next be provided.

A wide choice of media is available.

Orchid magazines carry names of firms that sell the necessary chemicals as well as prepared products.

Some of the media available, such as Difco Bacto Orchid Agar, require only the addition of water.

Many growers, however, prefer to make their own mixtures.

Among formulas that can be used the following are reliable and highly satisfactory: The agar should be cut into strips (it may come that way) and dissolved in a small amount of water in a double boiler.

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The advantages of the small tubes are ...

The advantages of the small tubes are that part of the seed may be saved for separate planting in case contamination spoils one planting and, since the tubes are on their sides while planting takes place, that there is less opportunity for fungus spores to fall into them.

A major disadvantage is that a small tube may not hold enough medium to nourish the seed over a protracted period.

Erlenmeyer flasks, also widely used, provide generous planting surfaces.

Whatever the container, it should have been sterilized in a pressure cooker or autoclave for thirty minutes at fifteen pounds pressure.

Oven sterilization over a period of three successive days will kill dormant spores if the pressure method is not practicable.

There is wide variation in the kinds of planting enclosures used, the choice often being determined by practical considerations.

Some growers find a case with a glass front both satisfactory and economical.

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Most growers prefer calcium hypochlorite, 10 gm....

Most growers prefer calcium hypochlorite, 10 gm. to 140 cc. of distilled water, filtered.

Seed may be exposed to this solution for fifteen to twenty minutes without harm, but a longer exposure will yellow the seed.

Rapid whirling or shaking of the container holding seeds and ster ilizing agent will make certain that the solution washes over each seed.

Several new sterilizing procedures have recently been suggested.

Walter Carter of Hawaii, writing in the Brazilian journal Orquidea, reports success in sterilizing seed by wetting with Valsol OT (1-1000) and then using 1-2500 bichloride of mercury in the vial.

K. L. McAlpine, in Orchid Review, recommends adding 1.0 cc. of hydrogen peroxide C.P. 30 per cent to 1000 cc. to the adjusted medium prepared for planting.

After this is thoroughly mixed no further precautions seem necessary.

Antiseptic containers should be provided after sterilization is completed.

Test tubes are satisfactory in a number of respects.

Medium is placed in the tubes and the tubes laid on their side to provide more planting surface.

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Fertile seed, under the microscope, appears browner...

Fertile seed, under the microscope, appears browner than infertile seed and reveals dark blurs.

Fertile seeds will also separate while the infertile ones cling together in a cottony mass.

It is best to plant seed immediately, although it is possible to keep it under refrigeration, in the same manner as pollen, for a more convenient planting time.

Cattleya seed has been reported to have been stored in this way for two or three years.

A shorter period is probably more safe for other orchids.

Absolute cleanliness should be the rule in planting.

Hands and tools should be washed in a 20 per cent Clorox solution.

If possible, seed should also be sterilized, as contamination is invariably easier to prevent than to cure.

Seed may be sterilized with a fair degree of success in 3 per cent solution of hydrogen peroxide.

A much stronger solution (30 per cent) has been used without damage to seed, but this is too tricky for the layman's use.

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There seems to be a phosphorus deficiency ...

There seems to be a phosphorus deficiency at this time.

Any supplementary feeding should be done cautiously; some experienced growers advocate that it be done not more than once a month.

Cattleya seed takes from nine months to a year or longer to mature.

Experience shows that the longer the pod takes to mature the more virile and fertile the seed.

Maturation of the pod before nine months usually indicates infertile or poor seed.

As the fruit or seed pod approaches maturation it becomes yellow and dry in appearance, the ribs begin to stretch at the seams, and, when fully dry, the pod bursts and the seeds are ejected.

The grower should watch these signs and, at the proper time, tie a paper bag-not wax, which may cause condensation-lightly over the pod to catch the seed and protect it from contamination.

Fertility of the seed may be determined microscopically, although there are other means of determination.

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The pollen should be suspended over, not ...

The pollen should be suspended over, not touching, the crystals.

After pollination the plant should be dried out a bit and removed to a more sheltered part of the greenhouse.

If the pollinated flower begins to droop and the petals curl protectively over the vital organs, fertilization has probably taken place-although sometimes wilting results from a disturbance of the stigmatic cavity.

If fertilization has taken place, the ovary (behind and slightly below the flower) will begin to swell.

The wilted petals will probably continue to dry and eventually drop off.

If the petals become wet, however, they may rot and should be trimmed off.

The seed-bearing plant should be treated moderately, but with particular care in watering to avoid chilling at night.

If the plant is healthy and well established, with good root growth in fresh medium, it should survive the ordeal.

The drain of strength on the pod-bearing plant may be obviated by supplementary feedings of a very weak well-rotted manure solution or one of the chemical formulas.

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A sharpened stick or toothpick is sometimes ...

A sharpened stick or toothpick is sometimes used to remove ripe pollen from the male flower and place it in the stigmatic cavity of the female.

If the pollen is touched by the hand, unfriendly fungi may very likely be introduced.

The preferred method of collecting pollen is to use a sharpened glass rod or a platinum wire that can be quickly sterilized and cooled.

It is better to use pollen immediately, but when expedient it can be saved for a flower blooming at a later date.

The pollen may be placed first on a piece of clean white paper and then in a sterile vial or plastic capsule, which may be kept in the electric refrigerator for some months.

The vial should be corked but not too tightly sealed, to prevent condensation and the entrance of fungus.

Some hydra ting agent, such as calcium chloride, may be used in the container.

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The plant to be used as pod ...

The plant to be used as pod parent should be well established with good root growth in fresh medium before seed bearing is risked.

To bear a seed pod is hard on the mother plant and often jeopardizes its life.

The planned end-result should be worth this risk.

Having well in mind the purpose of crossing, and the parent plants for this purpose selected, the grower must settle the matter of proper procedure.

Both parent flowers should have been on the plant long enough to be well matured, although the flower on the pod parent may mature further after crossing.

If the pollen flower has not matured, the crossing will be sterile.

Many growers make the mistake of thinking that aseptic methods need begin only with the planting of the seed.

Precautions should begin at the very beginning, with the parent flowers, for contamination may occur at the time the pollen is collected.

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The grower who, after a realistic appraisal ...

The grower who, after a realistic appraisal of the difficulties, decides to try to raise orchids from seed will find it wise to concentrate his time and energy on reproducing orchids from only suitable parents.

In the analysis of the suitability of a plant for parenthood it is a good idea to check on its popularity for hybridizing and the results of its use.

Laeliocattleya Princess Margaret, for example, is a plant with many quality offspring.

The hybridizer should have some definite goal, such as improvement of size, shape, and color of bloom, better quality of plant, or change in the blooming time.

Hybridizing solely for increase of stock may be a slow and tedious process, culminating in disappointment.

Many hybrids show no improvement over the parents and are often inferior to them.

A knowledge of genetics helps in determining the probability of certain results.

Genetic scientists find the life cycle of most orchids too long for practical experimentation and usually confine themselves to plants that reproduce quickly.

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Absolute and antiseptic cleanliness will cut down...

Absolute and antiseptic cleanliness will cut down the mortality in growing seed.

The attainment of this antisepsis may be difficult for the average amateur unless he is a scientist or doctor.

Perhaps the most discouraging factor to the amateur is that the time required for the maturation of seedlings and the eventual production of bloom is exceedingly long.

It takes from nine months to a year (sometimes longer) for Cattleya seed to mature in the pod.

Five to seven years are required from seed to bloom.

Some orchids take less time; others take more.

Phalaenopsis are said to have bloomed in eighteen months.

Some Vandas, although precise information is lacking, are supposed to take from twelve to eighteen years.

Many experiments trying to reduce this long maturation period are under way, but no conclusive results have been announced.

Experiments in the field of nutrient culture give hope, however, that a method for shortening the period will be discovered.

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Dr. Knudson demonstrated that Rhizoctonia was not...

Dr. Knudson demonstrated that Rhizoctonia was not necessary for the germination of orchid seed if artificial feeding took its place.

The function of the fungus was to make up for the seed's inability to supply its own food prior to root development; the Rhizoctonia acted as 'middle man' between the seed and the medium.

Knudson developed the now-famous formula for germinating and feeding baby orchids, 'Solution B,' which is essentially that used by orchid growers all over the world, although it may be altered in some respects to suit individual conditions.

Recently Knudson has announced a new formula, 'Solution C,' which he feels has some advantages over the earlier one.

Planting with artificial feeding is called asymbiotic planting.

A second obstacle to the growing of orchids from seed is the fact that the conditions most conducive to the germination and growth of orchid seed-a warm, moist, rather close atmosphere-are also those most favorable for harmful fungi.

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In 1909 Bernard in France and Burgeff ...

In 1909 Bernard in France and Burgeff in Germany independently came to the conclusion that the orchid seed was dependent on a friendly fungus called Rhizoctonia.

They reported that this fungus seemed indispensable to germination.

Their discovery, although the exact nature of the relation between Rhizoctonia 81 and the orchid was still not clear, led to the 'pure culture' or symbiotic method of planting orchid seed in a sterilized peat (sterilized to kill deadly fungus), and then inoculating it with the fungus found in ground-up roots of adult plants.

This method, although wasteful, was used by growers, notably Charlesworth of England, with fair success over a period of years.

Seed inoculated with the Rhizoctonia germinated, that without the inoculation did not.

But loss from pests and unfriendly fungi persisted.

The true relation between the orchid and its aiding fungus remained a mystery until in 1922 Dr. Lewis Knudson of Cornell University made an important discovery.

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The definite toxic effect of many of ...

The definite toxic effect of many of the new discoveries is still a mystery.

THE growing of orchids from seed is so difficult a process that only the most persevering amateur should be encouraged to make the effort, and then only after he has had considerable experience with adult plants.

The possibilities are tempting, but frequent failures and high mortality of seeds may make the whole experience discouraging and expensive.

Diligence, meticulousness, and, above all, patience are the qualities required of the experimenter.

The primary obstacle arises from the fact that the orchid seed, unlike most other seeds, contains no stored nourishment and, furthermore, has no means of converting outside food to its use.

The grower is forced to find a means of compensating for this deficiency.

Under natural conditions orchid seeds grow at the base of the parent plant or in the immediate vicinity.

Early experimenters, attempting to propagate orchids in an artificial environment, had success only when they planted the seeds at the base of an adult plant, where, in a way mysterious at the time, the seeds germinated and grew, although pests and fungi took an exceptionally heavy toll.

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pests and diseases are: (1) absolute cleanliness;...

pests and diseases are: (1) absolute cleanliness; (2) plenty of air and bench space, with no crowding of plants; (3) immediate isolation of infected or suspected plants; (4) proper control of humidity with no chilling while the house is wet; (5) a routine system of spray with a noninjurious insecticide, perhaps alternated with fumigation by burning nico-fume; (6) removal of armored scale by brush or fine mist spray under pressure; and (7) sponging fungus-infected spots with corrosive sublimate or copper sprays and dusting injured parts with sulphur to check the spread of rot.

The grower who keeps his plants in good health, providing the most favorable environment for vigorous growth and repotting at the proper time with fresh potting material, will cut to a minimum his troubles with pests and diseases.

Plants with healthy bulbs, leaves, and roots are remarkably pest- and disease-resistant.

We again emphasize the necessity of handling all insecticides with extreme care.

Exact attention should be paid to the precautions advised by the manufacturers, such as wearing a mask and rubber gloves when using the insecticide.

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It is harmless to plants when suspended ...

It is harmless to plants when suspended in water, but is difficult to use this way, because constant agitation is required to prevent precipitation.

Some type of spreader makes the use of D.D.T. easier and more effective, but also more dangerous.

Oil gives D.D.T. a penetrating quality that powder alone does not have.

Oil is harmful to Miltonias, perhaps less so to Cattleyas, and apparently not at all to Phalaenopsis.

If the use of oil as a spreader is necessary, washing the plant with a fine mist of water about 20 or 30 minutes after spraying will counteract the harm in some measure.

The spray should not be allowed to roll back into the crowns or axils of the plant.

Sometimes, while harmless in themselves, D.D.T. and a spreader in combination may be injurious to plants.

Camellias and hibiscus have been damaged by a combination of Volck and D.D.T. This is reason enough for the grower to experiment, if he must, on a small scale.

In brief the rules for control of

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and effective control.

Many commercial growers have been...

and effective control.

Many commercial growers have been using D.D.T. over a period of years with success, but they keep their formula secret.

Ernest N. Cory, writing in the American Orchid Society Bulletin, says that, correctly used and compounded, D.D.T. emul sions have been proved specific for thrips, Dendrobium beetle, and many types of scale, and that the treatment need not be more frequent than once in six months.

At the U. S. Botanical Gardens an emulsion of Xylol-Triton has been used on certain species of orchids for a period of two years without harm.

An emulsion of 20% D.D.T., zo% Triton B 1956, and 60% Xylol in a concentration of 80 cc. to a gallon of water is the formula recommended by Mr. Cory.

He advises controlled experimentation with a few plants before adoption for general use.

D.D.T. may be used safely in a duster in powder form.

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It is likely that this condition results ...

It is likely that this condition results from steaming caused by the 'sweating' of an excessively heavy sheath that has been subjected to too much heat.

Many growers make a practice of cutting off the tops of such very heavy sheaths as soon as the buds show at the base.

Cattleya Mossiae has a habit of forming the sheath months before the bud appears.

This sheath very frequently dries up and turns black, but the buds usually survive.

D.D.T. has been mentioned several times in this chapter.

The discussion of pests and diseases cannot be closed without more detailed consideration of this boon to pest control.

D.D.T. has been available for just the years since the war, but experimentation has taken place rapidly with excellent results.

We reiterate that the amateur must use caution in handling D.D.T. mixed with oil; spraying every three to six months with a suspension of 50% wettable D.D.T. in water, one tablespoon to the gallon, is a safe, easy,

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There is a theory that a virus ...

There is a theory that a virus may be responsible for the blackening of tissue around the newly formed bulb.

All rot should be cut away from the affected leaf or bulb and the injury cauterized with flowers of sulphur or corrosive sublimate, neither of which should be allowed to touch the roots.

The tool used in removing rot should be sterilized before being used again.

Some growers attribute the frequent appearance of dry or blackened flower sheaths, and the consequent loss of blooms, to a virus but there is no conclusive proof of this.

The consensus of opinion is that the condition is a result of a lack of air, or sudden chilling while damp.

The dry sheath may be removed by slitting both side 'seams' and pulling each half toward the leaf with a quick jerk.

This procedure may save the buds.

Infrequently it will be found that buds have succumbed to wet rot inside an apparently healthy sheath.

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Should this tissue turn black and soft ...

Should this tissue turn black and soft with rot, it must be removed from the pseudo-bulb with tweezers.

Care should be taken to avoid injury to dormant eyes or roots at the base of the growth.

If rotted tissue is not promptly removed, the entire lead may be destroyed.

There has been much discussion of virus disease in orchids, but all too little is known for any certainty.

A virus is apparently responsible for the mottled or marbled appearance occasionally noticed in blooms.

It seems to be a disturbance of the pigment and is in no way related to the 'watermarks' made by thrips.

Plants suspected of virus infection should be isolated.

As so little is known about the cause or cure of virus infection, it may be wise to destroy doubtful plants-the loss of one or two specimens is certainly preferable to infestation of the entire house.

Considering the prevailing ignorance about virus, it is a good idea to isolate and watch any plant in poor condition for an unknown reason.

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Badly infected plants should be burned, infected...

Badly infected plants should be burned, infected plants of any kind isolated.

Phalaenopsis seem to be peculiarly susceptible to the disease of bacterial black spot.

This appears as a tiny pearly spot in the crown and goes unnoticed frequently.

The spot gradually turns black, spreads, and the leaves drop off, leaving an apparently dead crown.

In some cases such a plant may be nursed back to health and blooming, by repotting in new medium, injuring the roots as little as possible, and spraying lightly until new leaves form.

However, if the tiny beginning of the disease is noted, immediately treated with 1-1000 bichloride of mercury or Bioquin 700, the advance of the disease may often be checked completely.

Water allowed to stand in the crown of the Cypripedium plants frequently results in a wet rot that destroys the flower buds.

Overhead spray, particularly when the sky is overcast and plants do not have an opportunity to dry out, allows water to drip down into the tissue surrounding the new growths.

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About 20 minutes after oil is used ...

About 20 minutes after oil is used the plant must be washed with a fine water mist.

However, the simple formula of 50% wettable D.D.T., suspended in water, 1-800, is so efficient for pests that it is foolish for the amateur to use oil at all.

Bacterial disease in the orchid house is a little-understood subject.

Again air and drying out before chilling do much to avert damage.

A brown rot is caused by Phytomonas cypripedii, which frequently appears in the growing points of Vandaceous plants or often in wounds.

Corrosive sublimate (0.1%) applied to injured parts should check the spread of this disease.

Erwinia carotovera will enter a wounded leaf and infected parts turn dark green.

Spread of the infection is rapid and results in complete collapse of the leaf and bulb.

As this disease may be spread by contaminated hands or tools, cleanliness and care will prevent damage.

It is wise to cut off the injured part, burning it, and then sterilizing the knife or shears before touching another plant.

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with a dilution of o.i per cent ...

with a dilution of o.i per cent bichloride of mercury.

Cladosporium causes brownish spots on the leaves, which eventually turn black, and the leaves collapse.

Bordeaux 4-4-50 or ammoniacal copper (Solcap or Bordelo may be used) will check this fungus.

Wiping with corrosive sublimate will control Diplodia, which forms brownish pin specks on the leaves, and Cercospora, which causes roughened olive-green spots to appear.

Oncidiums are the usual victims of Phylosticta, which shows in dark spots on upper and lower leaf surfaces and yields to copper sprays.

Excess humidity encourages leaf mold, Botrytis cinerea, on Cattleyas, but it can be controlled by simply drying the air and providing more ventilation.

Ventilation is perhaps the best defense against many of the fungi, hence the repeated warning against allowing the greenhouse to become overcrowded.

Soap in insecticide spray and oil in commercial sprays help control fungus, but oil sprays must be used with caution, as oil in any but minute quantities is injurious to orchids.

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Fungi, bacterial diseases, and virus diseases are...

Fungi, bacterial diseases, and virus diseases are all menaces.

The conditions conducive to orchid growth are those under which fungi thrive.

There is a friendly fungus, Rhizoctonia, that is found in association with orchid roots.

Unfortunately, however, unfriendly fungi are present just as frequently, especially on a weak or sick plant.

Too high humidity in the house, coupled with chilling from a sudden temperature drop or draft, will encourage fungus growth.

The damp heat used for seedling growth is particularly attractive to certain damping-off fungi.

Once the fungus has attacked the seedling it becomes a race as to which will grow the faster.

There are too many kinds of fungi to mention any but the major types.

Gleasporium forms on the leaves yellow spots that eventually run together to form a large brown spot.

Spread of this fungus can be prevented by airing and drying.

The affected parts of the plant should be wiped

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It seems, however, that the most careful ...

It seems, however, that the most careful precautions against their entrance fail and a control is needed.

Any of the snail baits on the market may be used-preferably in pellet form since they are composed of arsenic or methaldehyde, which on direct contact will burn the bulbs.

Pellets of Snarol or Buggetta may be scattered on benches and floor, with varying results, frequently disappointing.

Cory's Bait and Sander's Sui-slug apparently give a good control, although the pests at times still prefer the orchids.

A tempting bait may be formed by mixing any of the bait meals with rotten lettuce leaves.

Placed in a fresh leaf on top of the potting material, these tid-bits will lure the pest from other spots.

However, they must be removed before watering, an item of labor in a large house.

Earwigs, also destructive, may be controlled by the same methods, using earwig bait.

They will also crawl into a rolled-up newspaper at night, which can be burned in the morning.

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In fact the result seems to be ...

In fact the result seems to be elimination rather than control of flies and ants as well as the scale.

Unfortunately it does not seem to have the same effect on snails and slugs.

Cockroaches are voracious and seem fond of orchids, but they are not apt to be prevalent.

When damage caused by such a pest is apparent-chewed leaves and bulbs-the grower will patrol his house in the dark with a flashlight and hand pick the pests.

Other unfriendly foes may be detected in a similar way; snails and slugs feed in the dark, and do much damage to the blooms.

Growers wax eloquent on their sad part in providing luscious orchid salad for these hungry pests.

Benches set in cups, filled with oil, and provided with covers to keep the water from overflowing them are used by some growers.

Clean ground, gravel or cement floors, free of vegetative growth, help to keep them out.

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The cottony deposit of young scale would ...

The cottony deposit of young scale would build up in the axil of the leaf, and it was necessary to loosen this by the aid of some sharpened instrument, or stick of bamboo.

Prior to the development of D.D.T., keeping scale in check was the most that could be hoped for, but the future seems to offer the prospect of complete eradication.

Its advocates claim that it will control all forms of the pest.

After two or three applications, the quarantining of new plants until treated will make it unnecessary to spray more than once in six months.

A commercial product called T.A.T. has been used, as a spray, at intervals of three to six months, with harmless but efficient results.

Other solutions of D.D.T. with oil should be avoided by the amateur because of the penetrating quality of such solutions.

A suspension of 50% wettable D.D.T. in water, one tablespoon to a gallon, is a safe and easy control, but it will settle if not agitated.

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When the males emerge from their cocoons ...

When the males emerge from their cocoons they go on a mating flight, during which they do not eat; afterwards they disappear.

That the nymphs can crawl about, together with the free flight of the male, accounts for the extremely rapid spread of scale.

Unremitting attention is necessary to keep scale in check, although amateurs should be warned that some cures can be as bad as the pests and only proved methods should be used.

Before the advent of D.D.T., spraying with rotenone, Extrax, or Wilson's O.K. Orchid Spray was found fairly effective in controlling scale.

Destruxol was used but because of its oil base, needed caution; some orchids, especially Miltonias, are extremely susceptible to oil.

Spraying, however, was not sufEcient to keep the scale infestations down.

The use of a toothbrush was required to loosen the adult scale, which is protected by a heavy armored shell, under which it is impervious to the spray.

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Parlatoria proteus, a scale attacking Vandas, Cymbidiums,...

Parlatoria proteus, a scale attacking Vandas, Cymbidiums, and Cypripediums, causes leaves to die back at their base.

Coccus pseudohesperidum, black and soft, attacks Cymbidiums, Odontoglossums, and Cattleyas.

A light armored scale, Pseudoparlatoria parlatorioides, may heavily infest Cypripediums, causing the leaves to die back.

Pulvinaria Phaiae, 'cottony orchid scale,' attacks Phaius, Phalaenopsis, Calan-thes, and Odontoglossum.

Although not so destructive as some scale, it is disfiguring in that it turns leaves soft and yellow.

There seems to be a particular type of scale for practically every species of orchid, but fortunately control measures are the same for each type.

The males are a flying form and can be killed by spray, but the females, which are hard-shelled will not be affected by it, and partlienogenetic broods can be hatched that do not require the male to carry on the line.

The eggs hatch and the nymphs develop under the female's armor.

The males pass through a quiescent cocoon stage, often collecting in colonies under a powdery covering (sometimes mistaken for mealy bug) on the under side or in the apex of a leaf, in the dry tissue of the bulb, or, more rarely, at the base of the bulb around the new growth and dormant eyes.

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Another vicious pest much dreaded by growers ...

Another vicious pest much dreaded by growers is the Cattleya or Dendrobium beetle (Diorymellus laevimargo), which does not, incidentally, limit its operations to the species for which it is named.

This hard-shelled, shiny black beetle, about a sixteenth of an inch long, has a curving beak with which it attacks flowers, buds, and leaves.

It lays its eggs in the new green tips of the roots, where the larvae then hatch and, by feeding, destroy the root growth.

The mature beetle is quick and agile, and when disturbed will usually drop to the potting material, where it is almost invisible.

These beetles are less active in the early morning and late at night, and hand picking may get rid of many of them at these times.

Means suggested for extermination of the Cattleya fly are also effective in dealing with this beetle.

Pyrethrum powder is mildly effective and is harmless to the plant.

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One of the most deadly orchid pests, ...

One of the most deadly orchid pests, but fortunately not very common, is the Cattleya fly (Eurytoma orchidearum).

This insect lays its eggs in the tender new leads of the Cattleya.

The lead, when the eggs have hatched and the nymphs begin to feed, swells grotesquely and becomes soft to the touch.

The nymph finally eats its way out of the lead, emerging as a fly about a quarter of an inch long with a coal-black body and light transparent wings.

A plant that has been attacked should be isolated and the injured growth cut off and burned.

Careful observation of the new growths should lead to discovery of the condition before the nymph emerges as a fly to cause more damage.

Burning nicofume in the house will kill the flies but will have no effect on the larvae.

Pest B-Gon (D.D.T. 20%) is reported to have been successful in handling severe infestations needing drastic measures.

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In spite of all precautions the pests ...

In spite of all precautions the pests seemed to persist.

Since the war, what penicillin and sulfa drugs have done for the medical profession, D.D.T. and other insecticides have done for the orchid grower.

Once a considerable problem, pest control has been made simple.

While D.D.T. has not proved specific for thrips, red spider, and aphis, as it has for scale, O.O. di-erhyl-o.

p. nitrophenyl thiophosphate, a poison sold under the trade names of Parathion or Orchid-thion and requiring caution in handling, and Tetra-ethyl pyrophosphate or Vapotone, also requiring delicate handling, are most efficient controls.

Any form of extermination should be repeated at intervals, for, although the first application kills flying pests, the dormant stages are rarely touched and must be killed at maturity.

D.D.T. has the apparent advantage over other insecticides of maintaining its effectiveness over long intervals-from three to six months.

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Where possible, garden snakes, toads, frogs, and...

Where possible, garden snakes, toads, frogs, and salamanders should be encouraged, as they feed on pests.

The coming of spring and warm days brings thrips, red spiders, and aphis.

The maintenance of humidity in the greenhouse during this period will not only keep plants from being burned, but will also control these pests as they are susceptible to pneumonia.

Such control is especially important because these pests are extremely small and may do damage before they are seen.

Nearly all flower-lovers have seen thrips-marked gladiolas; the petals and leaves of orchids attacked by thrips are disfigured in much the same manner.

Red spiders leave ugly rust marks, particularly apparent on leaves of the Cymbidiums, and they can kill Miltonias.

In the past, systematic spraying with rotenone, pyrethrum, or nicotine provided a fair control for thrips, red spider, and aphis.

Some growers even burned nicofume (a poisonous gas, difficult to handle) two or three times a year.

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Ants and fruit flies are the most ...

Ants and fruit flies are the most common members of this category.

Many growers dislike ants.

In the jungle ants have friendly relations with orchids-stinging ants often preventing human desecration of the plants-but in the greenhouse ants are unsightly and unnecessary.

They have never been proved guilty of damaging orchids, but as sometimes they live in co-operation with the mealy bug and may assist aphis, it is just as well to prevent their entrance into the greenhouse.

Ant-proofing outside the house is the safest and simplest method of dealing with them.

Fruit flies are often found in the greenhouse.

They feed on decomposing Os-munda and, although at times difficult to distinguish from the scale fly, they do no harm.

Routine spray will dispose of them.

Thousand-legged insects, mites, and sow-bugs are occasionally found in the greenhouse but apparently do no harm.

The tiny plant lice that thrive in decomposing potting materials are harmless though disturbing to a grower's sense of neatness and order, and almost impossible to eradicate.

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THE damage that can be done by ...

THE damage that can be done by pests and diseases in an orchid greenhouse is so appalling that no effort should be spared to prevent their initial entrance.

The first line of defense is a roomy, airy greenhouse, in which balance is scrupulously kept.

The grower who inspects plants frequently should be able to halt an invasion of pests before it gets under way, while the preservation of plants and the immediate segregation of sickly ones prevent pests and diseases from gaining an easy foothold.

The successful grower is a good housekeeper-picking up dead leaves, removing dead plants, and isolating sick ones.

Adequate bench room for each plant is also an advisable precaution.

The greenhouse can be kept clear of pests and diseases only if the grower recognizes signs of trouble and is acquainted with effective means of control.

There are a few merely bothersome pests whose appearance need occasion no alarm, although the grower may wish to be rid of them.

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In reality all phases are equally important.

Each...

In reality all phases are equally important.

Each factor must be right and must be combined harmoniously for perfection in growing and flowering.

The grower will discover, as he watches and studies his orchids during periods of rest and activity, that he is actually serving an apprenticeship to the orchids.

No matter how much he may read or study, in the final analysis the surest way to success in orchid culture is through day-to-day acquaintance with the plants.

Matters that appear mysterious or confusing at the beginning will soon become second nature.

A habit of doing the right thing, a 'green thumb' or 'orchid touch,' will develop from this close relationship.

Whatever it is called, it enables the grower to tell, when he enters the greenhouse, whether or not the air is sufficiently sweet and moist; to determine, by lifting or glancing at a pot, whether water is needed; to decide, after inspection of a plant, whether it needs repotting and the precise time for repotting; and, finally, to determine with great accuracy how much or how little rest each plant needs.

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Genus Stanhopea, on the other hand, responds ...

Genus Stanhopea, on the other hand, responds gratefully to a period of rest after growing.

Rest can be induced by allowing the roots to dry out fairly well and by providing plenty of light and air.

When new growth starts, water in quantity is resumed.

For most species blooming time comes in summer and should be immediately followed by a rest period.

The genus Miltonia is sensitive and delicate.

Root activity is slight during damp winter months, so resting must be aided by very careful watering.

The potting mixture, since the plants have very slight bulbs, must never be allowed to dry.

They should be syringed with a fine mist because they chill easily.

They are susceptible to thrips in dry conditions.

Humid air provides the answer to both problems.

To the amateur, each factor in the raising of orchids is likely to seem most absorbing and demanding in its turn.

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When the potting material is Osmunda, this ...

When the potting material is Osmunda, this tendency to excessive activity must be curbed or the plant will bloom itself to death.

Buds can be pinched off unless at least one pair of the firm, leathery leaves have been formed since the last flowering.

Old flower stems may break into bloom anew, which weakens the plant and should be discouraged by cutting stems close to the plant.

The plant should be kept well watered, but the roots should not be allowed to become soggy from lack of air.

The genus Epidendrum rests somewhat, requiring slightly less water at the roots.

It needs almost daily syringing, however, to prevent fatal drying out.

The genus Odontoglossum, native to elevated parts of tropical Central America, requires no rest.

The roots must be kept moist at all times.

Care must be taken to prevent the compost from becoming sour.

Odontoglossum require more shade than most orchids.

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It should be watered profusely while growing.

Vanda...

It should be watered profusely while growing.

Vanda is a pseudobulb-less genus.

Growth is continuous.

It appreciates a warm, moist condition, with slightly diminished water at the roots during winter.

It requires little shade, since it seems to rest but little.

When grown in good conditions, V. coerulea has an unusually fine root system for an orchid and will bloom prodigally, sometimes twice and, less frequently, three times a year.

Vanda teres and V. Agnes Joachim seem difficult to bring to bloom in the temperate zones, their requirements for heat, intense sun, and much air being difficult to fulfil in a greenhouse.

Vanda tricolor and V. suavis, whose roots require air and moisture at all times, are more easily accommodated.

Vanda San-deriana requires more heat than V. coerulea and needs air and moisture at all times.

The genus Phalaenopsis is also pseudobulb-less, and, if properly nourished, will bloom constantly and never rest.

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If watered during the winter months, when ...

If watered during the winter months, when the plant is dormant, it will succumb to rot and die.

Much water is needed when the rest is over and the new bulb is being made up, but even then care must be taken not to allow water in the crowns.

Flowering takes place immediately after new growth, usually in the summer.

The genus Coelogyne rests according to species, but all species require some rest.

The condition of the bulbs is an accurate gauge of the needs of the plants.

They should always be kept plump.

Coelogyne Pandurata and C. asperata come from warm, moist, marshy habitats and so will grow most of the time in congenial environments.

If the temperature can be kept at 6oø F., they will take water at all times.

If the temperature is lower, the water supply can be cut down after growth is completed.

Coelogyne cristata benefits from sun and reduced water supply during the resting period.

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All the other Oncidiums enjoy a scarcity ...

All the other Oncidiums enjoy a scarcity of water during the rest period, with only enough moisture to keep the bulbs from shriveling.

The genus Cypripedium grows in a locale conducive to almost continuous growth.

It has no pseudobulbs and its evergreen leaves make water at the roots a 'must' at all times.

The genus Cymbidium tends to produce vegetative growth if not rested properly.

It should be watered more sparingly beginning at the end of August, and should be allowed to dry out fairly well between waterings.

Always syringe overhead on sunny days, but make sure that the house dries out before night.

The artificial feedings so beneficial during the growing season should be withheld from the time the new bulb is made up to the time when flowers appear.

After flowering it may be resumed.

Cycnoches is a genus requiring special dormancy treatment.

It goes completely dormant after flowering and water is completely withheld.

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They can be hung up against the ...

They can be hung up against the glass and kept cool and airy, with water almost entirely withheld during the rest period.

This treatment allows the canes to ripen and harden, strengthening them for profuse bloom.

When the nodes begin to swell, indicating that the flower buds are set, the rest period is over and the plants should be given more heat, moisture, and shade.

The genus Oncidium needs a long dry rest after a well-watered growing season.

It lacks pseudobulbs, but the heavy, leathery leaves are capable of storing food and water for the dormant period.

There are exceptions to this rule among the family: O. candidum, O. crispum, O. flexuosum, and O. micranthum require little or no rest and should be kept moist at all times; O. Lanceanum must be removed to a cooler spot and dried out, although not completely, for a short time during the winter.

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One division of the evergreens comes from ...

One division of the evergreens comes from the rain forests of the tropics, where natural conditions encourage almost continuous growth.

This division includes D. Phalaenopsis, D. dearei, D. thyrsiflorum, D. densiflorum, D. superbiens, D. bigibbum, and D. Farmed.

They flower on the new growth and do not lose their leaves.

As a result they can use some water at the roots at all times, with extra amounts during active growth.

Temperature should be maintained at a minimum of 60ø even during the rest period.

A second group of the evergreen Dendrobes comes from higher elevations and so requires less heat and plenty of light.

Water will be given slightly less freely during resting, but it should never be entirely withheld.

This group includes D. infundibulum, D. Jamesianum, and D. Formosum.

The deciduous Dendrobes, including D. superbum, D. nobile, D. Wardianum, and D. aureum, lose all their leaves during dormancy, becoming dry, shriveled, bamboo-like canes.

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The plants should be hung against the ...

The plants should be hung against the glass in the sun after flowering.

While growing they need much water at the roots.

They thrive on extremes, heat and air in the daytime, and less heat and air at night.

They should be kept in the sun and fairly dry during dormancy, but the bulbs should not be allowed to become shriveled.

The genus Brassavola calls for a warm temperature and copious amounts of water while growing and up to the point of flowering, which in most species takes place in autumn.

After the growth is made up, during resting, less water will be the rule.

The genus Dendrobium, owing to its many locales, is as perverse in its rest demands as it is diverse in its beauty.

Rest is essential if the cane-like bulbs are to ripen and grow strong enough to bear the blooms.

While the evergreen and the deciduous varieties follow the same cycle of maturation, rest, and flowering, means of securing rest differ.

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Stern measures will be required to shock ...

Stern measures will be required to shock the plant into flowering.

Cattleya gigas is one orchid that really demands neglect.

When the new growth and roots start, the plant should be well watered until the new bulb is completely made up-the flower sheath will appear at the same time, but without buds.

The plant should then be placed in a very sunny spot and water withheld.

Occasional overhead spray will meet all its needs during the winter months.

As root activity begins anew and buds are formed in the sheath, watering may be gradually resumed and the plant moved to a warmer, shadier spot until after flowering.

A slight rest may take place again after flowering before the new growth starts, and water should be used sparingly at such a time.

Flowering takes place during the summer months.

The genus Laelia requires a great deal of light and air plus a more decided rest period than Cattleya.

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They usually need more air, more sun, ...

They usually need more air, more sun, and less heat.

In addition to these general rules, each of the genera, according to their native climate, has certain special needs.

The genus Cattleya is moderate in its demands for heat, air, and moisture at all times.

It does not require complete rest.

Withholding water from the pot for a short time after repotting or after flowering will suffice, but the bulbs should not be allowed to become dry to the point of shriveling.

Humidity in the air and overhead spray will help keep them plump and firm.

They should be well watered in the pot and then allowed to dry out until the pot feels light when weighed in the hand.

The 'prima donna' of the genus, Cattleya Warscewiczii or gigas, requires special treatment in resting; withholding water is not sufficient.

If not properly handled it will put on new bulbs and leaves and refuse to bloom.

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If a treatment inadvertently breaks dormancy, the...

If a treatment inadvertently breaks dormancy, the amateur will be startled to find his collection increased by small additions, when what he expected was blooms.

Watching the roots is one means of judging a plant's needs.

Old roots that are still performing their special functions will be white and tough, and very hard to break.

Dead roots turn black and wet or dirty-brown and dry according to the cause of death.

If the plant needs to be removed from badly decomposed material and repotted, the roots may be green and slimy from fungus.

But the most heartening sight to the orchid grower is the new roots of a plant awakening from rest.

New roots, of a bright, clear, translucent green with a rosy glow, can be described only as jewel-tipped.

When plants are resting and the roots are inactive, it is only natural that they should require little or no water.

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If shipped when completely dormant and dry, ...

If shipped when completely dormant and dry, they will comfortably survive the long overseas journey and the fumigation, required on arrival.

By watching his plants, the grower will learn to recognize their needs.

When the plant feels the need of rest, usually during the winter months, active growth ceases and the plant 'stands still.

' There are no new roots and buds seem to remain endlessly in the sheath.

Most orchids cannot be induced to break this dormancy until they are ready, but others, if conditions encouraging growth surround them when they normally rest, will begin premature growth.

If this happens, the flowers will not have a chance to mature and the plant will refuse to flower for a season.

For a weak plant this may be a good idea, but usually the grower expects a yearly flowering.

Other plants, notably deciduous Dendrobes, will throw new plantlets if watered during the rest period.

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WITH the end of the flowering season ...

WITH the end of the flowering season for most plants and with potting under control, the grower finds next that all orchids need rest-some going into such deep rest or dormancy that they appear dead.

In a state of nature this rest is provided by the change of seasons.

It will be found that those plants requiring a long spell of complete rest in the greenhouse come from regions where long periods of hot wind occur.

During such times these plants shrivel and dry, giving no sign of life.

In the native habitat of many orchids these extremely dry seasons will be followed by torrential rains, during which the plant awakens and puts forth new growth that will culminate in bloom.

It is during the time of dormancy that collectors gather and ship orchids with the least danger of shock and damage.

Many a plant has died en route, having been shipped after growth has re-commenced, when the fresh young roots and tender bulbs are easily broken or rotted.

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This genus does not react well to ...

This genus does not react well to disturbance of the roots during hot weather, so September is the ideal time for repotting; growths will then be about an inch high and the plant will have a chance to re-establish itself before winter.

Repotting is also possible in March as new roots will have a chance to form before hot weather sets in. Miltonias may be repotted at the same time as Odontoglossums.

Straight Osmunda may be used.

Another medium consists of equal amounts of peat and moss, with good drainage.

Pots, not too large, are used as containers.

Extreme care should be taken that repotted Miltonias do not receive water until new roots form.

When the first orchids were imported from their native jungles many years ago, thousands of plants died from being transferred to unnatural conditions under glass with the aerial roots crammed into unsuitable media.

Gradually but surely painful experience has evolved the modern treatment that is now so successful that hothouse-grown plants often far surpass jungle plants of the same species in beauty, and in number and size of blooms.

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Odontoglossums also require a rich, moist compost;...

Odontoglossums also require a rich, moist compost; they thrive in leaf mold and heavy soil.

Osmunda tends to be too dry.

Old Osmunda, the residue from previous repotting of other orchids, can be used in repotting Odontoglossums, and a bit of sand may be added.

Polypodium mixed with finely chopped Osmunda is also used.

A more elaborate mix consists of sphagnum, fine-cut fiber, a little sharp silver sand, and a few decayed oak leaves.

These plants do exceedingly well under oak trees in localities where they can be grown outdoors.

As Odontoglossum roots are very fine, the plants should be soaked before repotting so that the old material will fall away without injuring them.

About two thirds of the pot should be filled with crock to insure good drainage.

Odontoglossums should be potted firmly but not tight.

Water should be withheld until new roots form, and then frequent damping will see the plant through in good shape.

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Cypripediums can be readily divided during repotting,...

Cypripediums can be readily divided during repotting, as they practically fall into separate plants, but, lacking pseudo-bulbs, they take up little room and there is not much need for separation.

Pots of four to six inches will be most convenient to handle.

The plant should be well centered since new growth may break from any side.

This genus will do well with the composts used for Cymbidiums.

The native habitat of the Cypripedium is usually swampy, so they need a rich, wet compost.

One grower recommends a mix of almost liquid, mud-like leaf mold to be poured around the roots and kept wet.

Osmunda, preferably partially decomposed, is effective.

A satisfactory formula for the green-leaved types is three parts loam, one part of Osmunda chopped fine, and one part sphagnum.

The mottled-leaved varieties do better with a formula of one part loam to two parts of Osmunda and two parts of sphagnum.

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Addition of leaf mold is always recommended.

Cymbidiums...

Addition of leaf mold is always recommended.

Cymbidiums need moisture at the roots at all times and correspondingly good drainage.

Since these plants grow enormous bulbs, a large pot is necessary.

The time for repotting is late spring when new growths are just beginning.

Backbulbs may be removed without disturbing the plant and they will start new plants from the dormant eyes.

When potted the backbulbs should be centered in the pot since there is no way of predicting the direction in which the eye will break.

They should be potted firmly, although not so tightly as Cattleyas, and they may be held fast with a stake.

Cypripediums have needs very similar to the Cymbidiums, but require more water and not such firm potting.

Cypripedium roots are brittle and delicate and should be handled gently to avoid injury.

If the plant is soaked for several hours before being removed from the pot, the compost may easily be separated from the roots.

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Sphagnum may be added to the medium.

The ...

Sphagnum may be added to the medium.

The genus requires a lot of water and consequently adequate drainage.

A book might well be devoted solely to Cymbidiums.

Every grower has his favorite mix of compost and these splendid plants do gratifyingly well in all mixes.

They are terrestrials and so do well in straight soil, although they seem to do best on a rich, well-drained medium.

Old, clean Osmunda, collected when un-potting Cattleyas and other species, is excellent for this purpose.

A formula highly recommended by a successful grower is three parts of leaf mold (oak and sycamore), one part disintegrated granite, one-half part fibrous peat, and one-half part turf and sand.

One grower's wife has been heard to complain that her husband tears up the front lawn to get potting material for his Cymbidiums.

The use of fertilizer is a controversial matter, but it is probably good for these heavy feeders.

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Sanders recommends a compost of three parts ...

Sanders recommends a compost of three parts finely cut Osmunda to one part of sphagnum.

Coelogynes, with few exceptions, should be potted in shallow containers in firmly packed Osmunda.

When repotting, the growths should be placed toward the center and the compost mounded.

As they do not react well to repotting, it should be avoided when possible.

Rather than repot, some growers prefer to add fresh medium at the front of the plant.

From time to time freshly sifted Osmunda may be sprinkled over the top and watered in. Here again Sanders recommends a compost of slightly less than three parts Osmunda and a little over one part sphagnum.

Oncidiums, like Dendrobiums, do well in confinement.

Their containers, which may be baskets or rafts, should be just large enough and, as a rule, hung in the light.

Osmunda is a satisfactory medium.

When Oncidiums are potted in a basket there should be a great deal of crock and not much compost.

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These roots must be severed in repotting, ...

These roots must be severed in repotting, and the plant is inevitably set back.

The intense interest in gravel culture, which is spectacularly successful with Phalaenopsis, is partly a result of this difficulty in repotting.

Dendrobiums need to be repotted immediately after flowering since they start new growth almost at once.

Osmunda agrees with them, although the addition of sphagnum is often helpful.

The deciduous canes may be cut from D. nobile and D. superhum and laid on the gravel under the benches.

They will break at the eyes and form new plantlets.

Dendrobiums may be accommodated in a variety of containers, but, since they thrive in confinement, the receptacle should be as small as possible.

Rafts or baskets are suitable for the drooping types.

Drooping canes should be allowed to follow their inclination unless room is scarce, in which case they may be tied up. Other types will do well in pots with Osmunda as medium.

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Vanda Sanderiana, as has been indicated, is ...

Vanda Sanderiana, as has been indicated, is the most temperamental of the Vandas.

It thrives in a large pot and reacts badly to repotting.

Old medium may be removed from the roots and fresh material tucked in its place.

Repotting, with Vandas as with Cattleyas, makes a good time to check up on scale-a pest most detrimental to this plant.

Phalaenopsis give trouble to some growers.

When potting, the plants should be well centered in the pot or basket.

Medium should be well packed but not so firmly as for Cattleyas.

Compost should come well up around the base of the plant, since Phalaenopsis has a tendency to force the constantly forming crowns up from the medium.

There should be very good drainage.

Osmunda makes a most satisfactory medium.

Phalaenopsis are heavy feeders and will usually exhaust the medium in two years, after which they should be repotted.

This orchid has strap-like roots that wander out of the container and become fastened to it, the bench, or adjacent pots.

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The potting method described applies to all ...

The potting method described applies to all Cattleyas, hybrids, and allied genera.

Vandas, with their air-loving roots, must have different treatment.

Vanda coerulea, especially, will do better on a raft than in a pot.

The roots will then be able to wander freely through the Osmunda tied around the base of the plant and the stocky aerial roots will break above the Osmunda.

One method of dividing a Vanda (not particularly recommended to the amateur, until he has at least gained some experience) is to cut off the top part of the plant below one or two of the big fat roots breaking from the stem.

The top part may then be tied on a raft, and both parts are supposed to grow and flower.

This would be dangerous treatment for V. Sanderiana, a plant apparently loath to send out typical roots from the stem.

If Vandas are planted in pots, good drainage must be assured (at least one-third crock being used), and the plant should be well centered in the pot.

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The label is placed toward the back ...

The label is placed toward the back of the pot, and the pot is then set aside in a place especially designated for newly potted plants.

Some growers do not believe in watering until the new roots are well established; others let the repotted plant go unwatered only a few days or, at most, a